Reading disorders in children. article on speech therapy on the topic

Inability to read is a little-known disease called dyslexia. Dyslexia is a partial disorder of reading skills, which is caused by the breakdown or insufficient development of mental functions involved in the reading process. With dyslexia, a child incorrectly recognizes various signs and symbols, as a result of which difficulties arise in understanding the meaning of what they read. In most cases, this disorder affects children, but it also occurs in adults whose illness was not given due attention in childhood.

Children with dyslexia experience significant difficulties in mastering the skill of reading and, as a rule, writing, despite the normal level of intellectual development, the absence of impairments in the visual and auditory analyzers and pedagogical neglect.

Dyslexia in children begins to manifest itself at primary school age and is expressed in the inability to achieve a level of development of reading, writing and spelling skills that would be proportional to their mental abilities, that is, dyslexia is often accompanied by dysgraphia and dysorthography. The prevalence of dyslexia among school-aged children is 5–10%.

Historical chronicle

The first suggestion about a special disorder - dyslexia - was made in 1887 by the German ophthalmologist Berlin. Nine years later, a sensational publication “Congenital word blindness” appeared in one of the English publications.

Its author, therapist Morgan, described a unique mental disorder that was manifested by the lack of fluent reading skills in a 14-year-old teenager who excelled in mathematics.

The medical community explained this phenomenon as the result of a defect in visual perception. In 1925, the American neuropsychologist Orton associated dyslexia with a disorder in the interaction of the cerebral hemispheres.

In the 70s of the 20th century, the culprit of word blindness was declared to be a deviation in phonological development, that is, the ability to distinguish sounds. This version finds the largest number of supporters in the modern scientific world.

Causes of reading impairment

In case of reading disorders, the following conditions are identified as the main prerequisites for successful mastery of literacy:

• The child differentiates speech sounds by ear, articulation, and identifies the semantic distinctive features of sounds, that is, he has an idea of ​​the phoneme. An unclear image of a sound makes it difficult to correlate a letter with a specific sound. As a result, mixtures of letters denoting acoustically and articulatory similar sounds may appear in the child’s reading.
• The child has an idea of ​​the sound composition of syllables and words of oral speech, and is able to combine speech segments (syllables, words) into a single whole based on an oral speech pattern. Violations in the formation of these operations lead to difficulties in syllable merging, omissions, additions and repetitions of letters.
• The child has formed ideas about the morphological composition of a word and the agreement of words in a sentence, on the basis of which anticipation and understanding of the content occur. Disturbances at this level cause agrammatisms, errors in reading endings and guessing errors.

The child has a sufficient vocabulary that determines the semantic guess when reading and an adequate understanding of the meaning of what is read. At this level of speech development, difficulties in semantic prediction and impaired understanding arise.

So, it has now been established that writing and reading disorders in children arise as a result of deviations in the development of oral speech: the lack of fully formed phonemic perception or, what happens more often, the underdevelopment of all its components (phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical).

This explanation of the causes of written speech disorders in children was firmly established in Soviet speech therapy. It is also accepted by the majority of foreign researchers (S. Borel-Mazonny, R. Becker, etc.).

Identification of writing and reading disorders

A speech therapy examination of children with dysgraphia and dyslexia should establish:

1) the degree of mastery of sound analysis skills;

2) the degree of mastery of writing and reading skills;

3) the state of oral speech in general, i.e. level of development of the phonetic-phonemic and lexical-grammatical aspects of the language.

One of the conditions for the development of written speech is the presence of the skill of conscious analysis and synthesis of its constituent sounds, without which the processes of writing and reading are impossible. Thus, first of all, it is necessary to identify the child’s readiness to orally analyze the sound composition of words. There are many different techniques for this purpose:

1. Distinguishing and isolating sounds from a word.

First, the ability to isolate vowel sounds is tested.

The speech therapist pronounces loudly and drawn-out sounds a

and
o
Invites the child to repeat these sounds after him.
Then he names the words where these sounds come at the beginning and are under stress (wasps, Anya, Alya, Olya,
etc.), and the child determines what the first sound is in each word. All other vowel sounds are practiced in the same way.

After this, you can invite the child to highlight the consonant sound, first at the end of the word, then at the beginning.

The speech therapist names the words, and the child raises his hand if he hears a word ending (beginning) with a given sound.

2. The child comes up with words that begin with a given sound.

The speech therapist first names a series of words that begin with a sound, for example: soap, mom, boy, fly, car.

And then asks the child to come up with and name words that begin with the sound
w,
then with the sound
s
, etc.

3. The child selects pictures whose names begin with a given sound.

The speech therapist should have several sets of pictures for this purpose. Each such set must contain pictures whose names begin:

a) from a given sound (pictures that the child will need to select);

Classification of dyslexia

According to the classification of dyslexia according to its origin, there are the following types:

• Acquired dyslexia or alexia: is a consequence of a previous injury or brain damage in a person who has not previously had problems with reading.
• Developmental or Developmental Dyslexia: Characteristic of people whose problems are identified early in learning to read. In this case, we are usually talking about childhood dyslexia.

There are also different classifications of dyslexia depending on the approach that is taken into account. In addition, there are two routes from perceiving the graphic image of a word to understanding its meaning.

The phonological route along which reading is carried out through the transformation of graphic signs (letters) into sounds, and from them - to the meaning of the word.

Visual or lexical, this is the route by which the reader directly associates a word with its meaning.

What causes dyslexia

Dyslexia is a partial impairment of the reading process caused by various reasons, including immaturity or impairment of higher mental functions.
The following reading characteristics in a child indicate dyslexia:

• phonemic problems associated with difficulties in recognizing phonemes, even in strong positions the child reads the word incorrectly (“Shenya” instead of “Zhenya”),
• analytical-synthetic problems , when a child allows distortions in the sound-syllable structure of a word (“nile” instead of “ruler”) or does not master the principles of syllable fusion (cannot read a word of several syllables at all).
• optical problems , which manifest themselves in difficulties in assimilating images of letters, their elements and in general with
• optical-spatial disorders and features of visual gnosis (the child does not orientate himself on the sheet, does not see the rulers).
• mnestic disorders , which manifest themselves in the inability to remember letters,
• agrammatical problems are typical for those children who have already mastered the skill of reading, but make mistakes during “fluent” reading. Or this is one of the signs of “guessing” reading, when a child reads the beginning of a word and then “substitutes” the wrong ending.

In semantic dyslexia, different mechanisms of impairment are observed:

• the wrong type of learning to read is letter-by-letter reading “book-staging” (when a child, instead of a word, reads a list of individual letters: B, A, B, A),
• poor vocabulary,
• poor level of mastery of grammar (the child knows “pencil” and “ruler” separately, but after reading the task “show the ruler with a pencil”, he cannot complete it).

Dyslexia is often mixed, when a child has different types of reading impairments. This happens if a child had severe speech impairments before school, or was silent for a long time, or these are combined disorders in the structure of other defects (with cerebral palsy, various syndromes).

If the child is physiologically and mentally healthy, studies according to the general education program, the school speech therapist deals with the problem.

If dyslexia is associated with problems of the child’s physical and mental health, then it is necessary to involve other specialists in the work - a child neurologist, psychologist, neuropsychologist, massage therapist.

Symptoms

Depending on the type of disorder, the symptoms of dyslexia can vary greatly. But there are several common features that will help to detect and eliminate this disorder in time.

• Frequently rubbing the eyes, reading from an unusual angle.
• Bringing a book closer to your eyes when reading. At the same time, vision can be excellent and in other cases (playing with objects in hands, looking into the distance) deviations do not appear.
• Reading with one eye or alternately closing eyes.
• Frequent fatigue, reluctance to complete reading-related tasks. At school, this could be homework, reading additional literature.
• Omission of sounds, words, phrases when reading, breaks in voicing the text.
• Complaints of headache and fatigue that only occur while reading.
• Errors associated with understanding the text, absent-mindedness, inattention, inability to retell what was read or say what the text was about, lack of understanding of its individual sections.

Associated problems with handwriting, learning to write, spelling words with unusual errors.

How can you tell if your child will have reading problems?

Every problem has roots. Let's look at various ways to diagnose problems that can later lead to the development of dyslexia:

1. If a child has speech disorders, he goes to a speech therapist. The speech therapist also looks at whether the child has disorders of phonemic hearing, analysis and synthesis, understanding, whether the dictionary is impaired and whether there are agrammatisms (incorrect formation of words and their forms), how well coherent speech is developed. It is in classes that develop speech that the speech therapist also carries out the prevention of reading disorders, especially those types that are associated specifically with speech.
2. During art classes and when using any types of manual labor, a good teacher will notice that the child has poorly developed fine motor skills (cannot cut, sculpt, glue, lace, or fasten buttons). For writing and calligraphy, it is very important to be able to perform small, precise actions. They are specially trained. I recommend these exercises every day.
3. If a child goes to school, he must be able to ride a two-wheeled bicycle - the functions of writing and reading require coordination and coherence.
4. Poor control of rhythm can complicate the learning of words with complex syllabic structures, which means it needs to be developed - dancing, music or more specialized procedures, such as an interactive metronome, will help.
5. Reading requires well-formed visual-motor and auditory-motor coordination in order to be able to see, hear, and speak at the same time - this is what is important when reading.
6. The child must be able to remember and, if necessary, retell what he has read.
7. It is necessary to understand which hand the child has - the leading one, with which hand he will write.

Speech therapists, psychologists, neurophysiologists and neuropsychologists often pay attention not only to the leading hand, but also to the leg and eye. Lateralization is important because in the Russian language there are letters that face right or left, are symmetrical vertically and horizontally, or are completely asymmetrical, and a left-handed child may have difficulty learning directions.

In fact, the vast majority of left-handed people and ambidextrous people (people who can use both hands equally) do not have any special features other than their dominant hand. The left-hemispheric location of the speech center is observed in 95% of right-handed people and 70% of left-handed people. And only 15% of left-handed people have a speech center in the right hemisphere. Such children have peculiarities of thinking - they think in images. They may have the ability to draw, play music, or, on the contrary, they may have a number of neurological problems.

Causes of dyslexia

Numerous studies have established that one of the causes of dyslexia is congenital lesions of the central nervous system, including disturbances of activity and attention (hyperactive children), as well as MMD (Minimal Brain Dysfunction).

The next reason is mental retardation (mental retardation).

A very important causal factor is disturbances in the occipital lobe (responsible for organizing complex processes of visual perception) and parietal lobe (responsible for organizing purposeful movements).

Another reason is General underdevelopment of speech (Motor alalia).

And finally, congenital brain pathology. But with it there is a nonspecific reading disorder.

Help and rules for parents

Before you start homework to correct the disease, remember some rules.

Calmness and patience. Even when your nerves are at their limit. Remember that dyslexia is not a sign of laziness, it is truly a disorder, a health problem.

You cannot punish a sluggishly reading child for mistakes when reading.

Praise. Highlight achievements. The situation of success is inspiring.

Do not share your feelings about this with other people in front of your child, this can seriously hurt him.

Dyslexia can manifest itself in different ways. Let's not go deeper, there are specialists for this.

When starting classes, remember that they should not be done occasionally, but regularly. To prevent your baby from getting bored with daily exercises, try to organize them in a fun way and do not overload the growing body.

Factors that aggravate the situation with dyslexia:

1. Weak language skills and speech problems

: late (less often early) beginning of one’s own speech; characterized by bright turns of speech; deficiencies in phonetics; difficulty expressing thoughts in words; stuttering.

2. Problems with mastering writing skills

: difficulties in writing words; reversal (mirror writing) of letters and numbers; a large number of errors when copying and writing from dictation; bad handwriting; there are many corrections in written works; combined with dysgraphia and dysorthography.

3. Weak math skills:

learning difficulties; difficulty estimating time; may be able to perform arithmetic operations, but not the ability to write or read them; problems with algebra or higher mathematics, but may also be successful in the subject; poor memory for sequences.

4. Psychological difficulties and problems

: low academic performance; insufficient formation of visual memory; low speed of completing tasks and inability to meet the deadline allocated for completing the task; emotional instability – excessive emotionality or irritability; difficulty concentrating, including on one activity; problematic switching between different types of activities; loss of interest, lack of self-confidence; high level of anxiety and fear of mistakes, can be assessed as a lazy student; Doesn't do well on tests despite having a high IQ.

5. Motor and psychomotor difficulties

: may have poor handwriting; disorders of spatial orientation, visual-motor coordination, clumsiness, clumsiness, disturbances of interhemispheric interaction; impaired coordination of movements and the associated assimilation of knowledge - a violation of the assimilation of the body diagram, confuses “right” - “left” and “above” - “under”; lags behind in team sports, has difficulty with motor-oriented tasks, learns best through hands-on experience.

6. Neurological problems

: often dizziness, headache, stomach pain; behavior may be erratic or disruptive; urinary incontinence even beyond the appropriate age; a sharp increase in difficulties under time pressure and stress.

7. Vision problems:

complaints of vision problems that are not detected during standard examinations; there may be a disturbance in depth perception; defects in peripheral vision.

The listed factors can be combined or isolated, characteristic only of dyslexia.

Sometimes it seems that skills are “mood dependent” and change from day to day. A child with dyslexia can easily read and write a word today, and just as easily fail to do so tomorrow.

Also, children with dyslexia are characterized by variability in errors: the same word can be read both correctly and incorrectly, and the erroneous reading looks different with each attempt: “dig - dig - roll - guess.”

Diagnostics

Diagnosis of dyslexia may include tasks such as:

• find the right letter;
• come up with as many words as possible starting with a certain sound;
• highlight all vowels or consonants in a given word;
• compare the sound composition of words that differ in one sound (kot-kit, mak-rak);
• count the number of letters in a word or words in a sentence;
• make up a short story based on a series of pictures.

Such a comprehensive examination allows you to find out the level of speech development of the child, understand what his main difficulties are, and draw up an individual plan for correctional classes. It is necessary to establish exactly what form of dyslexia the student has; exercises and their complexity will depend on this.

Treatment and correction of dyslexia

The traditional method of treating dyslexia is speech therapy correction work. This method involves working to correct all pathologies of speech and non-speech processes.

The method of speech therapy correction depends on the specific form of the disease:

• Optical dyslexia requires work on visuospatial representation, visual synthesis and analysis.
• Tactile involves working on parsing and understanding patterns and developing spatial representation.
• With mnestic memory, it is necessary to develop auditory-verbal and verbal-visual memory.
• With the phonemic form, it is necessary to correct sound pronunciation and form ideas about the sound-letter composition of words.
• Semantic requires the development of syllabic synthesis and vocabulary, and work on the child’s assimilation of grammatical language norms.
• In the agromatic form, work should be done to form grammatical systems.

Related posts:

1. Symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) in Young Children Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) manifest themselves in a range of conditions that are characterized by...
2. What is chickenpox and why do people only get it once? Chickenpox or varicella is a contagious viral disease characterized by...
3. Scarlet fever in children: how does it manifest and how to treat it? Many of us were faced with a serious infectious disease in childhood...
4. Adenoids in children and adults Adenoids in children and adults are causes of severe discomfort...

Difficulties in learning to read: causes and correction. article on the topic

"Difficulties in learning to read: causes and correction."

A person has to master a number of skills throughout his life. Some of them are characterized by great complexity, and therefore require a very long time for their formation. A skill like reading takes several years to achieve a certain degree of perfection. And the already formed reading skill is the foundation of all subsequent education.

Practice shows that the number of children experiencing difficulties in learning to read is growing every year. This is often due to the fact that when developing the reading skill, the stages of its development were not taken into account; in particular, the reading technique was not developed to the level at which it becomes possible to assimilate the meaning of the words being read.

We all know that reading is a complex psychophysiological process. Visual, speech-motor, and speech-auditory analyzers take part in its act.

In general, reading skill consists of two factors: semantic (reading comprehension and expressiveness) and technical, i.e. reading techniques.

Difficulties in developing reading skills can be caused by disorders of various types: spatial concepts, spatial orientation; hand-eye coordination; motor skills, graphomotor skills; auditory, visual, phonetic-phonemic perception; voluntary attention; memory, especially decreased auditory-verbal memory; successive functions; sound pronunciation of the grammatical structure of speech, poverty of vocabulary.

Children who have difficulty developing reading skills read more slowly than the school curriculum's reading rate indicators. They make the following mistakes when reading: omissions, substitutions, rearrangements of letters, syllables, distortion of endings, underreading of words. Many people are characterized by guessing reading and have difficulties in syllable merging. Distortions in the sound composition of words and difficulties in syllable merging in most cases make it difficult for children to understand what they read.

It should be noted that the listed errors when reading in a child may be random due to increased fatigue or distractibility of the child.

Also, many children with intact intelligence, hearing and vision, who are just beginning to learn to read, make similar mistakes, but these errors do not last long and disappear quite quickly. But if such errors are typical, characteristic and repeated for a child, then we should talk about a reading disorder such as dyslexia. These errors persist for a long time, months and even years, and are persistent. Dyslexia is a partial specific disorder of the reading process, caused by the immaturity (impairment) of higher mental functions and manifested in repeated persistent errors.

Persistent months of reading training and systematic additional classes that both teachers and parents conduct with such children, as a rule, give more than modest results. Let us note that at the same time, adults involuntarily constantly fix the child’s attention on his failures, which leads to an increase in his anxiety, the formation of a negative, emotionally negative attitude towards the reading process and towards all learning in general.

The child urgently needs psychological (not pedagogical) and speech therapy help. This help should be aimed both at removing these psychological barriers caused by failures in reading, and directly at developing reading skills - but only in a different way, through training.

A student who has difficulty reading is invited to temporarily take a break from this “tedious” activity and instead engage in fun exercises with picture and verbal material; performing these exercises leads to the formation in the student of a number of important operations that underlie reading; Having mastered them, the child subsequently reads much better and feels successful.

Teachers, in turn, during literacy lessons can carry out work on propaedeutics of the occurrence of these reading disorders. And this, of course, needs to be done during the pre-literate and alphabetic periods of learning to read and write.

Let's look at the most common reading difficulties faced by primary school students, the reasons for their occurrence and ways to prevent them.

I - difficulties in merging letters into syllables, syllables into words (letter-by-letter or syllabic reading).

II - reading words with errors: skipping letters, rearranging syllables, replacing previous letters with subsequent ones.

III - the beginning of the word is read correctly, but the end is read with distortions, i.e. guessing reading.

IV - “mechanical” reading (misunderstanding of the text being read: distortion of the meaning of words, misunderstanding of the meaning of words, phrases, text)

V - mixing letters according to acoustic and articulatory characteristics, and mixing letters according to optical characteristics.)

So, let us dwell in more detail on the difficulties that the student experiences when merging letters into syllables, syllables into words, which leads to letter-by-letter or syllabic reading.

Reasons for this problem:

1. Low level of synthesis of sound elements.

2. Disadvantages in the development of sound-letter associations.

3. Insufficient knowledge of the letters of the alphabet.

In order to prevent the occurrence of such difficulties in reading, a number of interesting exercises and tasks are used that teachers can use at various stages of their lesson.

To solve such a problem as children’s insufficient knowledge of the letters of the alphabet, a variety of games with letters are used in lessons. Let's briefly look at some of these exercises.

Of course, useful for memorizing letters is laying them out from sticks, cubes, mosaics, buttons, peas, pebbles, modeling letters from plasticine (from sausages/flagella) or wire, tracing and coloring three-dimensional letters, and shading them. When memorizing letters, it is advisable to rely on images and compare letters with various non-letter images.

An original way to memorize letters is the “Body-letter” exercise: children depict a letter using their whole body. You can ask such “Body riddles” to your students, or they themselves will come up with them for the teacher. Using such riddles, syllables and words are composed. You can use the “Dermolexia” technique, when the teacher draws a letter on the child’s palm, and the child recognizes it with his eyes closed, and you need to draw on the “leading” hand, to stimulate the leading hemisphere. Tasks that complicate letter recognition are useful; they are presented on slides. These are “Crossed out letters”, “Different font”, “Inverted letters”, “How many identical letters”, “Unfinished letters”, “Which letters are more”, “Mirror letters”, “Superimposed letters”, “Which letters are hidden?” .

Game "Cut letters". For this game, you need to prepare cards with letters, cut them into two parts (then you can further cut the same letters so that you get 3-5 parts). Invite children to assemble letters by presenting the parts in different ways: This game is very similar in principle to cut-out pictures. It promotes not only the memorization of letters, but also the development of visual and effective thinking, and will help prevent errors in writing letters (mirror writing, writing “upside down”, erroneously writing a letter similar in appearance instead of a given one).

An exercise that always arouses interest among children is “Find and Underline.” For this exercise you will need any text with large font (an old children’s book, perhaps a primer or alphabet book, an advertisement from a mailbox). Invite students, carefully looking through the text, to find and underline the letter that you are memorizing with them. Don't forget to name or ask what letter the children are looking for. This task is completed within 5 minutes. If you successfully complete such tasks, you can suggest looking for two or three letters at the same time. The task is useful at all stages of learning to read (even for children who read), as it also trains attentiveness.

A successful exercise for memorizing letters is the “Attention” exercise. Students are asked to look at the card, read what is written on it, remember it and write it down in their notebooks. Card exposure time is no more than 2 seconds. 2 sets of 7 cards are used - a meaningless combination of consonant letters from 3 to 9.

As mentioned earlier, one of the reasons for difficulties in syllable merging is the low level of synthesis of sound elements.

And starting from the very first lessons of learning to read, to develop sound synthesis, it is good to use the game exercise “Collect scattered sounds.” Children are pronounced individual sounds ([s] [a]) and asked to say which syllable should be made. Direct, reverse, closed syllables and syllables with consonant clusters are used. In a more complex version, individual sounds are pronounced: for example, [s, u, m, k, a] and the children need to say what word it will be. This exercise is advisable to use in class when introducing a new letter, before reading syllables and words with this letter.

To eliminate shortcomings in the development of sound-letter associations, it is recommended to use syllabic tables. Syllable tables are used at any stage of learning to read. At first, they will be a good help in overcoming the difficulties of merging a consonant with a vowel, and will help children quickly find and recognize letters. This work provides a fairly high level of mental activity of students in the process of learning to read, and develops observation and visual control. The tables follow the principle “from simple to complex”; they can even be called “language-breaking”, but if the child masters them, then in the future he will be able to read the longest and most complex words. You should not move on to the next table unless you have mastered reading the previous one. With the help of tables (if you study them regularly), the teacher will be able to instill in children a stable tendency to carefully perceive the sound-letter composition of words, which will contribute to the correct development of reading and writing skills.

Let's briefly look at the methodological techniques for working with syllable tables. The teacher randomly names the syllables of the table and invites the children to find the corresponding syllable and read it. When completing these tasks, students do not need to sort syllables into letters, since children remember the entire syllables spoken by an adult. Carrying out similar work, you can use the game “Loto”.

Similar to syllable tables is the exercise “Searching for given words in the text”, i.e. translation from an auditory form to a visual one. 1–3 words are given that students must find in the text as quickly as possible. First, these words are presented visually, then auditorily. Having found the words, students underline or circle them.

The following exercises are also used to develop letter synthesis:

1) “Cards - slides.” Students are asked to read the words arranged in a slide sequentially. The lower they go, the more difficult it will be to read. 2) “Reading dotted words.”

At any stage of the reading lesson, it is recommended to use the exercises “Reading lines with the lower half covered and Reading lines with the upper half covered.” To do this, just take an ordinary ruler and read with the children the syllables, columns of words and sentences that are given in the primer, first covering the bottom of the line, then the top. It is important to use this exercise to develop the synthesis process, and as mentioned earlier, it is the low level of synthesis of sound elements that is one of the reasons for difficulties in syllable merging.

The next difficulty that children encounter when reading is reading words with errors, namely, missing letters, rearranging syllables, replacing previous letters with subsequent ones.

Reasons for such reading errors:

1. Lack of formation of voluntary attention processes.

2. Insufficiency of visual analysis processes.

Let's look at a number of exercises, the inclusion of which in the lesson will help prevent and eliminate the occurrence of the above errors.

Of course, these are primarily exercises aimed at developing spatial concepts. Using the example of their own body, children learn to distinguish what is above, below, right, left, front, behind. They answer the teacher’s questions (which hand is right? head down or up? back behind or in front?) first about themselves, and then about those around them. Children are also offered the following tasks: a) lay out a sequence of mosaics, beads, geometric figures, first according to the proposed sample, and then from memory; b) fold the cut pictures and fold the images from the cubes.

The next type of exercise is the “Dictation of spatial actions”, i.e. well-known graphic dictations. Graphic dictations help prevent such typical learning difficulties as underdeveloped spelling vigilance, restlessness and absent-mindedness. By completing graphic dictations, the child will broaden his horizons, increase his vocabulary, learn to navigate in a notebook, and get acquainted with different ways of depicting objects. These exercises must be included in lessons, because they contribute to the development of students’ voluntary attention, spatial imagination, fine motor skills of the fingers, coordination of movements, and perseverance. Also, in reading lessons, to develop voluntary attention, it is advisable to use the “Find a pair for a word” exercise, the purpose of which is a letter-by-letter analysis of words. Students are given 18-20 cards, each with one word written on it. You need to find words that differ in spelling by one or more letters. To develop the processes of visual analysis, we recommend the “Find a Word” exercise, aimed at assimilating visual images of letters and highlighting them in a word. Children are asked to select and underline those letter combinations and words that are written before the line. Another interesting exercise is “Find the standard”. A long word or pseudoword (i.e., a word that has no meaning) is offered as a sample (standard). Then the children are given a set of 10-15 cards on which both this standard word and other words that differ from it by only one or two letters are written. For example: the standard is the word flomenidia, and on the cards there are the words: flomanidia, flomenadia, flonemidia, etc. The students’ task is to quickly sort the cards into two groups: with words that match the standard, and with words that differ from it. At the first stages of this exercise, the standard word should be placed in front of the children on the table so that they have the opportunity to place the card in question under it and compare the two words letter by letter by moving their finger. At subsequent stages, the standard word is spatially separated from the cards in question, for example, written or hung on the board, so that students can compare them only by constantly looking from one word to another. At the final stages, the standard word should only be shown for 15-20 seconds and then removed so that the children can make comparisons from memory. This exercise develops the ability to quickly and accurately analyze each word letter by letter, and also strengthens verbal and logical memory. Also, to develop the processes of visual analysis in the classroom, you can use, I think, well-known exercises to you, such as “noisy words” and “words superimposed on each other.” Let's dwell on one more type of error: the beginning of the word is read correctly, but the end is read with distortions, i.e. guessing reading. The reason for such reading is the lack of visual analysis of the word. In this case, exercises aimed at developing visual verbal analysis, for example, the “Find words” exercise, will be effective. In the given series of letters, students are asked to find the “hidden words.” Exercise “Reading backwards” - each word, starting from the last, is read letter by letter in reverse order. Exercise “Reading normally and vice versa” - the first word is read as usual, the second - from right to left, the third - as usual, the fourth - from right to left. This exercise develops the ability to work with the simultaneous functioning of two opposite attitudes: to well-known, familiar images and cliches and to new, unexpected complexes - and to flexibly move from one of them to the other. After encountering more difficult reverse reading, the child develops the attitude that ordinary reading is a relatively uncomplicated task that is quite feasible for him. The next exercise is “Reading only the second half of the word.” Children mentally divide the word in half and voice only the second half of the words. Exercise “Inverted text” (letter-by-letter analysis). The plain text page is rotated (90', 180', 270'). Children must move their eyes from right to left to read the text.

We often encounter such reading as “Mechanical” reading (misunderstanding of the text being read: distortion of the meaning of words, misunderstanding of the meaning of words, phrases, text). The reasons for such reading: uncritical thinking and superficial semantic processing of the text. Let us briefly look at 2 exercises, the use of which will help prevent the occurrence of mechanical reading in students. 1. Exercise “Fill in the blanks” (semantic analysis of the text). Children are given a text with missing words. The students' task is to insert words that are suitable in meaning. 2. Exercise “Search for semantic absurdities” (analysis of the semantic content of the text). A text is used in which, along with correct sentences, there are those that contain semantic errors that make the situation described absurd. The students’ task is to find such semantic errors. It should be noted that to overcome this type of reading, you need to consult a psychologist and study with him. And the last thing I would like to draw your attention to is such reading errors as Mixing letters according to acoustic and articulatory characteristics, and Mixing letters according to optical characteristics. If the errors listed above are persistent, it is not possible for the teacher to cope with these violations within the framework of the lesson. This requires consultation with a speech therapist and speech therapy sessions with children who have these reading disorders. And so we looked at the most common difficulties in learning to read, their causes and ways to prevent them. By using the exercises and assignments listed above in your lessons, you can prevent the occurrence of persistent reading disorders in students.