The main goal of any speech, and, consequently, of any speaker, is to have one or another impact on a certain circle of listeners, to convey to them a specific thought and, as a rule, to receive the necessary return. Moreover, rhetoric is so flexible that it acts differently in the hands of each individual speaker. This article examines several classifications that reveal the types of speakers.
The art of eloquence, or rhetoric, has been revered since ancient times, and today no one will deny the power of the word. Rhetoric, like any other form of art, is not homogeneous and has different effects depending on what type of speakers addresses it.
Classification according to Cicero
Cicero was one of the first to propose his division of speakers into three types, according to what they use to persuade the public - clearly structured reasoning or emotional influence.
First type
The first type of speaker, according to Cicero, is distinguished by modesty and restraint. Their speech seems harmonious and logical and, being essentially a monologue of one rhetorician, nevertheless resembles a dialogue between two intellectuals: the speaker and his audience. This effect of live communication is achieved through the active use of rhetorical questions and the question-and-answer form of communication.
The power of persuasion of such an author lies in his ability to reason and draw certain conclusions. By conveying complex things to the audience in simple language and revealing the obvious, the speaker wins over the audience. As a rule, they are captivated by the rationality of the author’s judgments, his cold calculation in relation to what he is talking about.
This case also has its drawbacks: it is quite difficult for the first type of rhetorician to make a dry speech, devoid of any emotions, lively. A person is designed in such a way that after the first 20 minutes of perceiving information, attention becomes more scattered and boredom appears. This is why the monotonous speech of restrained speakers makes many listeners drowsy.
Second type
The second type is a kind of opposite of the first and is based on the emotional presentation of information. An author of this type is in his own way quick-tempered, impulsive and “burning” with the idea that he is trying to convey to his audience. Such people attract attention and keep you in suspense from the beginning of the speech to the very end.
The speaker is captured by his own feelings and not so much by desire as by the thirst to open the public’s eyes to what the speaker himself clearly sees. Because of his ardor, he loses sight of one important detail, namely, the structure of speech. As a rule, the speech of such speakers, with all its pomp and solemnity, is quite confusing and inconsistent, which causes understandable difficulties in perception.
In addition, a rhetorician who throws the listener off the bat with his stormy utterances risks looking not just strange, but even frightening and insane.
Third type
The third type of speaker according to Cicero is moderate and is located between two extremes: the overly restrained first type and the overly impulsive second. In a speech that is accessible and attractive to the public, everything should be in moderation, starting with a logically constructed structure and ending with the emotional message of the speaker.
By intelligently combining the qualities of the first two types, you can get an ideal speaker who controls his speech and knows how to influence not only the mind, but also the feelings of the listener.
Persuasiveness and evidence of oratory speech
The connection between rhetoric and logic can be traced back to ancient times. It was eloquence that served as the impetus for the development of logic, which, from the very beginning of its emergence, solved a number of important issues for the speaker - how to make a speech more convincing and intelligible, compositionally correct.
Among the persuasive factors of speech influence, logic as the science of the laws and forms of human thinking has a special place. Over the course of its centuries-long development, logic has accumulated rational, practice-tested methods and techniques of convincing reasoning, the mastery of which has a decisive influence on the formation of a culture of thinking. The logical culture of thinking is understood as the ability to reveal the essence of contradictions in real life, to see the manifestation of natural connections behind random events, to identify the essential aspects of social processes occurring in the world and to express logic in oral speech.
Logical reasoning is the clarity of basic concepts and statements, the absence of contradictions and inconsistencies, the sequence of transitions from one thought to another, and a reasoned presentation of the material.
We can give several practical recommendations, the observance of which will help to correctly formulate the logical content of a speech:
* Be consistent in your speech. Do not move on to the next point of your speech until you have completed the previous one. Repeatedly returning to the unsaid produces an extremely unfavorable impression, as it creates in the audience a feeling of unpreparedness or professional incompetence of the speaker.
* Start your speech with the most significant provisions, leaving the particular and secondary ones for the end. This rule is due to the fact that during the delivery of a speech it may be necessary to consider an issue in more detail and deeply. In this case, you risk not having time to cover the most significant points if you start with less significant ones.
* Don't waste time on things that are not necessary and that you can do without during the performance.
Remember that by bombarding your audience with facts and examples, you risk the general perception of fundamentally important issues.
*Don't repeat yourself. If you consider it necessary to repeat what has been said, please state this specifically. Make it clear that this is intentional repetition. This can be done using phrases such as: “I want to once again draw the audience’s attention to this issue”, “It is no coincidence that I repeat this thesis, since it emphasizes the importance of the identified problem”...
* Do not wander away from the issue being discussed; do not be distracted by extraneous problems, facts, information, examples, etc. that are of little significance for the essence of the matter. This danger always awaits the speaker, regardless of experience and repeated repetition of the same speech.
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Fear of public speaking
... public speaking. [11] Modern man spends most of his life in public. And when the need arises to speak in front of an audience, ... autonomic dysfunctions of the following nature ... such as apprehension, fear, fright, horror ... tempo of speech, rhythm disturbance). ... abstracts, students with reports and thesis defenses, and specialists in various fields of activity are faced with the need to speak, ...
There is always the possibility of being distracted by some word or remark, a fresh example, etc., going far away from the originally covered survey
* At the end of the speech, summarize what was said and draw conclusions. We most often encounter violations of this simple rule when answering exam papers. When a teacher, after listening to a student, is forced to ask: “Have you got everything?”, this means that the speaker did not summarize the material presented, did not sum up the results, and therefore his speech left the listener with the impression of understatement and incompleteness.
Classification according to S.F. Ivanova
According to the thoughts of the teacher, lecturer and author of numerous works on rhetoric S.F. Ivanova, a person manifests himself in oratory depending on what type of personality he belongs to. So, S.F. Ivanova considers the following types of speakers in her classification.
Emotionally-intuitive
This personality type correlates with the second type according to Cicero. Just like Cicero, the emotional-intuitive speaker captures the attention of the public with the help of passionate and expressive speech, rich in ironic remarks, topical jokes, vivid comparisons and lyrical digressions.
Speakers of this type often appear a little eccentric due to their behavior behind the podium. The danger for such authors is that their rambling speech appears to many listeners as idle chatter and, therefore, does not receive the necessary serious attention from the audience and its response, which, in fact, is the purpose of any utterance. In order to remain not only an original author, but also in demand, speakers of this type carry out special work on their speech.
Such authors usually prepare for presentations in two stages. To begin with, they write down their speech as it comes from the heart with all emotional expressions and digressions. At the second stage, the received text is processed. The author analyzes his work and cuts off the unnecessary. During the speech itself, they are advised to have a clear plan with them, reflecting the structure of the speech, and protecting them from unnecessary statements and prolongation of the speech.
Rational logical
Speakers belonging to the rational-logical type behave more restrained. As a rule, such people are more silent and do not make empty speeches. Each statement is the fruit of long and deep reflection. Such people tend to constantly monitor and analyze everything that is happening around them, as well as what is happening inside the speaker himself and his listeners. This habit of reflection gives rise to precisely calibrated statements, devoid of the color and special “juiciness” that good speech should have.
As the first type of speaker in Cicero’s classification shows, speech deprived of a certain amount of expression becomes almost lifeless, despite all its logical beauty. Analysis of the situation and the speech that is being prepared regarding this situation is very important, as is the structure of the speech. However, this is not enough to “reach out” to the audience and get their response.
That is why, when preparing for performances, this type devotes a lot of time to the written editing of his speech in the direction of enriching it with various artistic means such as metaphors, comparisons, epithets, as well as numerous aphorisms and proverbs.
Philosophical
This type of speaker is more difficult to characterize, since they do not belong to one extreme or another, but from time to time they can be either too consistent or, on the contrary, confusing. As a rule, people of this type are somewhat withdrawn and fixated on the topic that interests them. They enjoy studying an object from all sides, spending a lot of time working with archives and communicating with people involved or close to the subject of study.
Such an author usually speaks in public infrequently, but as a speaker he is characterized by his thoughtfulness and comprehensive analysis of the problem being studied. Rhetors representing the philosophical type are good at written reasoning, therefore letters to like-minded people or scientific articles published from the pens of these authors are distinguished by logical reasoning and a deep understanding of everything related to the object of study.
The public loves and listens attentively to such rhetoricians, thanks to their ability to present information in a moderate style, maintaining the originality of their judgments with sufficient imagery of speech.
Lyrical or artistic
Speakers of this type are rarely found in their pure form and are usually philosophers who are carried away by lyrical reasoning. The lyric rhetorician is a creative person who, like philosophers, is characterized by deep thinking and a tendency to constant reflection.
The main feature of the speech of such a speaker is its imagery. He thinks not in logical structures, but in figurative manifestations of the surrounding reality. Thanks to this perception of the world, lyrical speakers pronounce speeches rich in metaphors, comparisons, metonymies, quotes, proverbs, sayings and other means of expressive language.
Language and style of public speaking
In the scientific understanding, language is a form of communication between people, a tool for the formation and expression of thoughts and feelings, a means of assimilation and transmission of various types of information and new knowledge. In order to effectively influence the minds and feelings of listeners, a speaker who is a native speaker of a given language must be fluent in it, i.e. have a high level of speech culture. The improvement of speech culture and the development of coherent speech (oral and written) is facilitated by mastering the theoretical foundations of independent branches of the science of language - stylistics and speech culture, which study “language use”.
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Psychological features of communication
... communication is determined by the fact that in its process the subjective world of one person is revealed to another. In communication, a person determines himself, revealing his individual characteristics. By... uh" and others. In social psychology, there is a large number of experimental studies ... of the use of words, its expressiveness and intelligibility, the correct pronunciation of sounds and words. Words and...
Stylistics (the word “style” comes from the name of the needle, or stiletto, with which the ancient Greeks wrote on waxed tablets) is a branch of the science of language that studies the system of language styles (functional styles of speech), the patterns of their functioning in different areas of use, the peculiarities of the use of language means depending on the situation and goals of the statement, the sphere and conditions of communication.
Functional styles are characterized by a certain system of linguistic means, the stable use of neutral (i.e., commonly used, not assigned to any one style) and stylistically colored elements of the language - lexical and grammatical. Each style requires special means of expression and contains a certain system of rules for the use of linguistic means.
Each of the functional styles is implemented in two forms - oral and written, which, in turn, depends on the form of communication - direct or indirect (written documents, media, etc.).
Different styles are characterized to varying degrees by one or another form of communication. For example, for a conversational style, the oral form is more typical, while for the scientific and official business style, the written form is more typical.
Conversational style refers to the oral form of language functioning. The internal stylistic features of the colloquial style include ease, concreteness, and expressiveness of expression. Thus, the colloquial style is usually used in everyday speech. Its goal is communication, exchange of thoughts and impressions. The traditional form of implementing this style is dialogue. In the conversational style there is no preliminary selection of linguistic material. It uses, along with neutral ones, reduced colloquial language means: words and phraseological units, colloquial words, emotionally charged words, words with a figurative meaning, particles, interjections, addresses, introductory words, sentence words, incomplete sentences, repetitions of words, weakening of syntactic connections between words, etc.
As for the official business style, this phrase already indicates the scope of its application - in the correspondence of individuals and legal entities, in messages of state and public importance. Its purpose is to inform. The usual form of implementation is a monologue.
In this style, there is a preliminary selection of linguistic means and its own genres: code, law, decree, resolution, charter, order, act, protocol, communiqué, instruction, announcement, etc. In an official business style, neutral language means and words in their literal meaning are predominantly used.
Lexical and syntactic features of the speech
Since oral speech is irreversible, the speaker must constantly ensure that his speech is easily understood by the listeners the first time. The speaker's responsibilities are to minimize difficulties in understanding speech. In this case, first of all, you should keep in mind some syntactic and lexical features.
1. Simple sentences and parts of complex sentences should not be excessively long. The limit of RAM is limited to a long verbal chain, consisting of 5-7 words.
2. Those types of constructions that tend to the sphere of colloquial speech are more easily perceived. In structure, these constructions are non-common and less common, one-part sentences (definitely personal, indefinitely personal, generalized personal, impersonal, denominative), incomplete, uncomplicated. These constructions can be either independent sentences or parts of complex sentences.
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Speech in psychology
... In psychology, there are two main types of speech: external and internal. External speech includes oral (dialogue and monologue) and written. Dialogue is direct communication between two or more people. Dialogical speech ... moreover, written speech does not have any additional means of influencing the perceiver, except for the words themselves, their order and punctuation marks that organize the sentence. ...
3. It is undesirable to use passive voice constructions. Their natural sphere of functioning is the official business style, texts designed primarily for the transmission and preservation of information, and not for impact.
Speech perception is significantly complicated by the use of verbal nouns ending in =nie, =tie, as well as others similar to them. Any verbal noun is a collapsed sentence; it is, as it were, a bundle of meaning that requires unfolding and awareness.
The disadvantages of this proposal, which make it difficult to perceive, include: firstly, the significant prevalence and complexity of the proposal; secondly, a large number of verbal nouns: resolution, restoration, termination, expansion, influence, decision.
When preparing a speech, you should not abuse the use of terms: do not overload the text with terminology and do not use highly specialized terms.
Classification according to S.A. Mineeva
The first two approaches to the classification of types of speakers were based on the psychological characteristics of the author’s personality, while the third classification, proposed by the author of many books on the art of rhetoric, S.A. Mineeva, refers to what the speaker puts at the forefront of his speech: his speech, the audience or himself.
Constructive
A constructive speaker sets priorities so that the speech comes first, which is why such an author devotes a lot of time to formulating the thesis of his speech and how to most effectively convey it to the audience.
For authors of this type, it is important not just to give a speech, but to fully disclose the problem to the public and consider all possible ways to solve it. They need a concrete result to remain after their speech, which will be the impetus for resolving the situation under discussion.
As a rule, rhetoricians of the constructive type carry out painstaking work on their speech, carefully thinking through the structure of the speech and selectively filling it with linguistic means to establish the necessary connection between the speaker and his audience. Special attention is paid to preparing a convincing argument in favor of the proposed solutions.
Rhetoric in the hands of such authors becomes a real weapon for achieving persuasion of the audience by any means available to rhetoric.
Thus, Aristotle wrote that rhetoric is “the ability to find possible ways of persuasion regarding any given subject.”
This is precisely the approach to rhetoric that constructive speakers take.
Populist
Populism is a striking example of almost all speeches made by politicians during the election campaign. Based on this thought alone, one can guess that a populist speaker is focused, first of all, on attracting a mass audience.
As a rule, the speeches of such speakers are a mirror reflection of what the public wants to hear. Hence the numerous election promises that the speaker forgets about after achieving his goal. By the way, the goal of a populist is to attract public attention to a certain person. This personality is usually expressed in the image of a hero (which is most often the speaker himself or the one for whom the speaker is campaigning) or in the image of an enemy against whom it is necessary to unite under the leadership of the hero image.
The means used by a populist usually consist of abundant criticism of opponents, promises to lead the audience to a better life, and vivid descriptions of solutions to all problems existing in society. With his speeches, a populist speaker creates an imitation of vigorous activity to restore subjective justice.
Populist methods of attracting audiences are distinguished by their destructiveness and, in contrast to the creative call of constructive speakers for practical solutions to problems, they create only the illusion of resolving pressing issues, and their inherent criticism even generates a negative attitude in society towards opponents, up to conflicts and clashes.
Demagogue
For this type of speaker, rhetoric is a way of self-expression and drawing attention to oneself, thus putting the speaker himself in priority.
The speech of a representative of this type of speaker is characterized by inaccuracy and generalization of formulations, lack of references to specific events and personalities.
As the Roman rhetorician Quintilian said, rhetoric is “the science of speaking well,” and a rhetorician is “a worthy man, ready to speak.”
This is what distinguishes a real demagogue - he is ready to speak in any situation, with or without reason.
The demagogue's speech lacks idea and purpose. As a rule, such a speech turns into a thoughtless stream of general phrases, devoid of any specifics.
Personal type of communication
Contact with the audience will be more successful if the speaker uses a personal type of communication. This type of communication involves constructing a speech when working with an audience in the same way as a conversation with a specific person in direct contact (“live” conversation).
The personal type of communication assumes that the speaker, during the speech, clearly indicates his author’s self: his attitude to the subject of speech, to the interlocutor.
Experienced speakers use almost all means of language as a means of expressing the author’s self. However, for such linguistic means as pronouns, particles, introductory words, complexly subordinated sentences with a subordinate explanatory expression of the author's I is the main functional purpose. Particles (only, even, here, same, etc.), despite the small size of the sound material, clearly indicate the presence of the author’s voice in the text, quite often expressing the author’s attitude.
Some particles are very expressive, expressive (you know, I took it, etc.).
Introductory words are used for the same purpose: the expression of the relationship is reflected in them more clearly and definitely:
“But, one way or another, even on his unsuccessful poems, on everything that came out of his lips, there was a touch of some kind of divine, ecstatic inspiration, as happened with the prophesied holy fools in Rus'.”
This text is literally full of pronouns: his, all, that, his, some, this. All these pronouns, as well as the introductory word in one way or another and the particle even give the text the feeling of the sound of the author’s voice.
The author’s attitude (and, accordingly, the author’s) is most clearly expressed by complex sentences with an explanatory clause (I believe that; it is clear that others): “Here, by the way, I note that Easter eggs became works of art in those times when in the ritual Royal and grand-ducal families began to participate in donating eggs for Easter." The highlighted construction (Here, by the way, I note that) can be omitted without any damage to the information being communicated. Its purpose is to help the speaker identify his I in the text and thereby make his speech more personal, i.e. addressed to the audience.
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Course Topic Development of speech of older preschoolers through theatrical...
... to consider the possibilities of theatrical activities for the development of speech in older preschoolers; 3) study methods and techniques for developing the speech of older preschoolers through theatrical activities; 4) conduct experimental work using theatrical games on speech development in older children...
Thus, when preparing for a speech, we must take care of a convincing, meaningful development of the topic and its good information support. The speech format of the speech should ensure constant contact with the audience and contribute to the rapid and reliable assimilation of the content.
Qualities of a good speaker
Regardless of what type a speaker represents, he must have certain qualities in order to be a worthy object of public attention. These qualities include the following:
- erudition and impeccable command of language are an essential quality of a good speaker;
- the speaker must also be attentive and observant, since it is important for him to record and analyze the changes taking place in the world and in society. Besides,
- it is important to notice changes in mood in the audience in order to be able to influence it;
- ingenuity and the ability to think logically will help the speaker to endow his speeches with rational judgments and a clear structure;
- a broad outlook and developed intelligence are necessary for the author to formulate his own opinion based on the studied facts and data obtained;
- moderate expressiveness is necessary for the speaker to demonstrate personal interest in the topic under discussion and for emotional rapprochement with the audience;
- a speaker needs to develop personal qualities in order to look like a worthy person in the eyes of the public.
The talent of eloquence is not given to everyone from birth, but, nevertheless, every person at least once in his life acts as a speaker, thereby demonstrating the qualities of certain types of speakers, which proves the importance of rhetoric in the life of the entire society.
Information support for the speech
The speaker must pay special attention to illustrative material and material that provides information support for the speech.
You should think in advance what numbers you will give. The text should not contain a lot of digital material, since a large number of numbers bores listeners and obscures the main thing. The numbers should be understandable and based on real background knowledge of the audience.
When preparing the text of a speech, a separate, independent area of work is working with quotations. The purpose of the quote may vary. Some quotes are designed to appeal to emotions; others appeal to consciousness, convince with the given factual material, others rely on the authority of the source.
If a quotation is really necessary in a speech, then regardless of the type of quotation and its purpose, you must, first of all, check the quotation. In this case, it is completely inappropriate to rely on your own memory, but you should check the quote used in the text with the original. Secondly, the meaning of the quoted passage in the text must coincide with the meaning of the quoted passage in the source text. Thirdly, the volume of the quotation should be sufficient for its meaning to be relatively independent and stable. If a very small amount of speech material is quoted, then you should take the time to explain to the audience the meaning of the quoted words. Truncated citation is one of the ways to manipulate public opinion
Constant work should be done to select quotations, organize them and update them.
The real preparation for a speech is to develop your own attitude to the subject of the speech, formulate your thoughts on a particular issue, and analyze your ideas from the perspective of the future audience.
