Fundamentals of public speaking: rules for speaking at a speech

The ability to win over an audience is the most important skill for a person striving for success in various areas of life. All studies of the phenomenon of first impression confirm one thing: our brain perceives the initial assessment as the most complete and correct. The first impression is very stable; everything that contradicts it is considered an exception by the brain. To erase a negative opinion about yourself, you will have to correct the situation many times in different contexts, otherwise the unpleasant impression will remain dominant.

The Roman patricians placed the basics of oratory above knowledge of the laws. Since then, little has changed. The ability to speak effectively and impress the public is a necessary quality of a leader. A person who masters rhetoric expresses his thoughts clearly and clearly, listens and hears opponents, is able to convince skeptics and come to an agreement with opponents.

A charismatic leader is a success for the company. Some bright personalities are charismatic by nature, but this is very rare, so entire PR departments work on the image of top managers. And yet, no PR person can speak in front of the public or negotiate for his boss, so the manager has no choice but to learn the art of public speaking. This is necessary not only for top managers and public politicians; public speaking skills are necessary for managers at any level, teachers, and anyone who plans to advance their career.

Content

• What a speaker should be able to do
• What is the basis of oratory?
• Development of public speaking skills
• Composition of oratorical speech
• How to structure a speech according to the rules of oratory. A clear structure of the speech.
• Competent and expressive language
• Objective and useful information
• Balance between emotions and facts
• Laconic speech
• Appropriate pauses
• Portrait of the audience
• Improvisation
• Prepared jokes, quotes, stories
• Sense of humor
• Narrative style

Persuasive Text: Structure

In classical rhetoric, the composition of a speech consists of 5 parts:

1) introduction;

2) presentation of the material, situation or context;

3) confirmation of your idea in the form of providing arguments and facts;

4) refutation in the form of presenting a counterargument and establishing its falsity (lack of evidence);

5) conclusion.

This classic scheme for constructing an oratorical speech can be used as a basis for the text. At the same time, the structure of your text may or may not include all 5 parts; their sequence can also be changed.

What a speaker should be able to do

An orator is a speaker who knows how to speak in front of an audience and has a whole arsenal of rhetorical skills. The speaker can be called a man-orchestra, he:

• knows the techniques of oratory - competently, beautifully and intelligibly conveys his thoughts to the public;
• knows the psychological mechanisms of influence on the audience;
• has acting skills - understands the laws of stage speech, controls gestures and facial expressions;
• feels the response of the audience and knows how to improvise;
• He is well versed in the topic he is talking about.

Back in Ancient Greece, where rhetoric was born and flourished, there was debate as to whether eloquence was an innate talent of the elite, or a skill that could be developed. Many people are still convinced that successful public speaking is the destiny of charismatic leaders, while this option is not available to others. But the story of the famous ancient Greek orator Demosthenes is a lesson for everyone who considers oratory abilities to be exclusively a gift from God.

Demosthenes was tongue-tied, had a quiet voice and constantly twitched his shoulder. It is difficult to imagine a person more unsuited to rhetoric. But the dream of becoming a famous speaker came true thanks to exceptional perseverance and endless training. So the fame of Demosthenes’ talent has survived for a couple of millennia and has become an example of how to develop oratory, having obvious contraindications to public speaking.

How to Write a Persuasive Text: Where to Start

Before you get started and write a truly compelling text, the first thing you need to do is decide on a topic. Think about what you want to write about? Maybe you want to change something in the world or your country? Why is this important to you? What do you want to achieve, what kind of response and reaction from society? In what ways can you persuade?

The basis of any persuasive speech or text is the very essence of the argument - the main idea that you want to convey to others, or the point of view that you defend and prove.

The second step in creating a persuasive text is to write this idea in the form of a thesis statement - a sentence that summarizes the main idea. Example thesis:

River ecosystems are suffering due to the construction of dams.

If you can express your idea in the form of a thesis, then you are ready to argue it.

The third step is frame . Try to find stylistic devices, figures of speech, tropes, sentence structures and the rhythm of the text that are suitable specifically for your text. This will be discussed later in the article.

To design presentations, printed materials, publications, create logos, business cards, and infographics, I recommend using the Canva program. This is a very simple and convenient all-in-one visual editor. With thousands of professional templates, images, and other quality elements, you'll get a great starting point to bring your best ideas to life.

What is the basis of oratory?

Rhetoric was born in Ancient Greece as the science of oratory. Even then, it united the art of eloquence itself, the science that studies oratory techniques, and the very process of persuasion with the help of words.

In short, what public speaking is is the skill of public speaking in front of an audience. Rhetoric teaches how to effectively influence the public based on three main factors:

1. Ethos - the conditions for delivering a speech: time, place, composition of the audience.
2. Pathos is the message of the speaker, the topic and goals of his speech.
3. Logos - linguistic means and oratorical techniques in speech.

Depending on the specific situation (ethos), different types of eloquence :

• academic rhetoric - lectures, scientific reports;
• socio-political rhetoric - parliamentary speeches, diplomatic speeches, manifestos and reports, rallies, military-patriotic speeches;
• judicial rhetoric - speeches of prosecutors and defense attorneys;
• theological rhetoric - sermons, the word of the pastor;
• social and everyday rhetoric - table and welcoming speeches, civil funeral services, commercial eloquence.

Pathos determines the purpose and features of the style of oratory :

• informational speech communicates new facts or knowledge to the audience;
• entertaining - designed to amuse and captivate the audience;
• persuasive - has the goal of convincing listeners that the speaker is right;
• agitating - calls on the audience to take some action;
• inspiring - infects with emotions.

Rhetoric in ancient times

Sophists in Ancient Greece before the public

The origin of rhetoric began in ancient Greece. Due to the fact that democracy was being formed in this state, the ability to persuade gained considerable popularity in society.

Every resident of the city had the opportunity to undergo training in oratory, which was taught by the sophists.

These sages considered rhetoric to be the science of persuasion, which studies ways of verbally defeating an opponent. Because of this, the word “sophism” subsequently caused a negative reaction. After all, under them, rhetoric was viewed as a trick, an invention, although even earlier this science was considered the highest skill, skill.

Aristotle (383 - 322 BC)

In Ancient Greece, many works were created that revealed rhetoric. The author of the classic Greek treatise on this science is the famous thinker Aristotle.

This work, called “Rhetoric,” distinguished oratory from all other sciences. It defined the principles on which speech should be based and indicated the methods used as evidence. Thanks to this treatise, Aristotle became the founder of rhetoric as a science.

In Ancient Rome, Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BC), who was engaged in politics, philosophy and oratory, contributed to the development of rhetoric. He created a work called "Brutus or on the Famous Orators", describing the development of science in the names of popular speakers. He also wrote a work “On the Speaker,” in which he talked about what kind of speech behavior a worthy speaker should have.

Then Cicero created the book “The Orator”, which reveals the basics of eloquence.

Cicero considered rhetoric the most complex science, unlike others. He argued that in order to become a worthy speaker, a person must have deep knowledge in all areas of life. Otherwise, he simply will not be able to maintain a dialogue with another person.

Marcus Fabius Quintilian

Marcus Fabius Quintilian, in his 12-book work “Rhetorical Instructions,” analyzed rhetoric, adding his own conclusions regarding all its components. He valued the clarity of style and the speaker’s ability to awaken emotions in listeners. He defined rhetoric as “the science of speaking well.” Quintilian also added to the teachings of rhetoric by pointing out the importance of the non-verbal component.

In the Middle Ages, rhetoric began to be called homiletics

, church eloquence and, of course, changed the appearance and internal content. Now eloquence was aimed at glorifying God and his greatness, and also at proving the existence of a higher power exclusively speculatively, in theory, in words.

Development of public speaking skills

The definition of oratory in the modern sense is, in essence, the culture of speech and psychological skills that make a person effective in the field of public speaking and interpersonal communication. Rhetoric uses emotional and psychological techniques to influence listeners and takes into account the portrait of the audience. Its main task is not so much to convey knowledge as to form an opinion and convince.

Why is public speaking necessary today? A speaker who has mastered the skills of eloquence not only controls himself during a speech, he completely controls the situation. Developing skills is impossible without constant training. Rhetoric has never been a mere theory; in this discipline, quantity of practice develops into quality.

The speech of a trained speaker has special properties:

• contains linguistic and non-verbal methods of influencing the listener;
• focused on receiving feedback from the audience;
• The effectiveness of influencing the public is achieved through the interaction of the psychological state of the speaker and his authority among the audience.

Development of rhetoric in Russia

A.S. Pushkin at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. Painting by I. Repin, 1911

Rhetoric in Russia arose on the basis of Roman science. Unfortunately, it was not always in such demand. Over time, when political and social regimes changed, the need for it was perceived differently.

Development of Russian rhetoric in stages:

• Ancient Rus' (before 988). Life-giving is an intrasocial function of life-speech. This is obvious to those who remember that the letter “Zh” in the Slavic alphabet has the name “Live”. The conceptual root “speech” (speech as an expression of thought) is directly present in both words, which indicates a very serious attitude to what is said by the individual. Even the letter “R” had the name “rtsy”. And “Rtsy” is a form of the imperative mood, similar in meaning to the current “river”. So the priesthood had to have the power (in the sense that words should not remain without consequences corresponding to their meaning) to “speak” about how society should live and how it should solve the problems that arise in its life, and what will happen if it lives otherwise it will not solve problems.
• Rus' of the Kyiv period (XII - XVII centuries). During this period, the term “rhetoric” and educational books on it did not yet exist. But even then and before, some of its rules certainly applied. People at that time called the ethics of speech eloquence, eloquence, piety or rhetoric. Teaching the art of the word was carried out on the basis of liturgical texts created by preachers. For example, one of these collections is “The Bee,” written in the 13th century.
• First half of the 17th century. During this period, an important landmark event was the publication of the first Russian textbook, revealing the basics of rhetoric.
• The end of the 17th - beginning and middle of the 18th century. At this stage, the book “Rhetoric”, written by Mikhail Usachev, was published. Many works were also created, such as “Old Believer Rhetoric”, works “Poetics”, “Ethics”, several lectures on the rhetorical art of Feofan Prokopovich.

M.V. Lomonosov "Rhetoric"

• XVIII century. At this time, the formation of rhetoric as a Russian science took place, to which Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov made a huge contribution. He wrote several works dedicated to it, of which the book “Rhetoric” became the basis for the development of this science.
• Beginning and mid-19th century. This period is characterized by the fact that there was a rhetorical boom in the country. Famous authors published a large number of textbooks. These include the works of I.S. Rizhsky, N.F. Koshansky, A.F. Merzlyakova, A.I. Galich, K.P. Zelensky, M.M. Speransky.
• However, starting from the second half of the century, this science begins to actively supplant literature. Soviet people studied stylistics, linguistics, speech culture, and less - rhetoric.

Composition of oratorical speech

The composition of an oratorical speech is the structure of a speech, where each part works to present the speaker’s idea in the most convincing way. A thoughtful composition keeps the audience in constant suspense. Any speech must have an introduction, a main semantic part and a conclusion. One of the secrets of oratory is that a successful beginning and ending can “stretch out” a weak middle.

1. The purpose of the introduction is to win over the audience, arouse interest, and establish the necessary form of interaction with the public. A bright opening draws attention to the speaker. It is good form to outline the topic and issues of the speech at the very beginning. To hook the audience, tell a relevant life story, an interesting fact, a paradox, or ask an unexpected question on the topic.
2. The purpose of the main part of the oratorical speech is to convince listeners of the legitimacy of the thesis presented with the help of arguments, examples, and refutations. Facts, logic and oratory techniques that hold attention work here.
3. The conclusion is not just a summary of what has been said and summing up. In conclusion, pathos is important, since here an emotional impression is formed, the reaction the speaker needs to all of the above. The listener may not remember all the points and arguments, but the strong emotion at the end leaves a strong impression of the speech as a whole. The main thing is not to end on a minor note. Regardless of the topic, the ending should inspire optimism.

Other techniques

Here we will consider a whole range of different techniques.

1

Allegory

Allegory (allegory) is the embodiment of a phenomenon (idea, thoughts) in a visual image. For example, in the speech “I have a dream” Martin Luther King gives the following allegory:

“I dream today that one day in Alabama, with its vicious racists and a governor whose lips come with words of intervention and nullification, one day, in Alabama, little black boys and girls will join hands as sisters and brothers with little white boys and girls."

The image of children of different races and different genders holding hands is a reflection of the idea of ​​tolerance and equality. Allegories can be used very effectively to illustrate abstract concepts such as friendship, equality, love, loyalty, to enhance the perception of the key ideas of the speech. Allegory is a rather complex technique in rhetoric and requires, if not special skill of the speaker, then certainly good preparation.

2

Call

An appeal is also a common oratorical technique and consists of addressing listeners directly with an appeal to some action. Using an appeal in a speech is justified if you want your listeners to be able to create a vivid image of your idea in their heads with their direct participation in its implementation.

This rhetorical technique should be used carefully and not too often. The technique will definitely work in an audience where the audience is quite supportive and attentive to the speaker. For example, we urge you, our readers who spend several hours a day working at the computer, to try to devote at least 20 minutes daily to self-development by studying materials on the site, and then within a month you will be able to feel progress.

3

Chiasmus

Crossing (chiasmus) is a technique that helps to express your thought succinctly and beautifully by a cross-shaped change in the sequence of elements in two parallel rows of words. Perhaps the most famous chiasmus was spoken by John F. Kennedy at his inauguration: “Ask not what your country can do for you—ask yourself what you can do for your country.” Also known is the chiasmus in Lermontov’s poem “Loneliness” :

Everyone is ready to share the fun:

Nobody wants to share the sadness.

Crossing increases the persuasiveness and expressiveness of your speech. It is chiasms that are often used as quotes from famous speakers.

4

Citation

If you feel that your arguments are not convincing enough, or you have not yet gained the public's trust, then it would be appropriate to support your speech with quotes from recognized leaders. For example, during the Soviet Union, speakers often used quotes from Vladimir Lenin, whose authority was unquestioned.

However, it is important to quote correctly, preferably verbatim, so as not to distort the idea of ​​the original source. If the quote is large or difficult to understand, you can make it shorter and simpler by telling it in your own words (this is called a paraphrase). Read about how to better remember quotes in one of the following lessons.

5

Chain

The chain is a frequently used means of holding the attention of listeners. In a speech chain, the full meaning of the first link of an idea becomes clear and complete only in connection with other links, up to the last link in the chain. Let us give as an example one very interesting toast, which is based on this technique: “I want you to die... So that you die at 100 years old... So that you die at 100 years old from the hand of a jealous person... And so that your death is deserved.”

This chain technique allows the speaker not only to remain a source of genuine audience attention throughout the entire speech, but also, with the help of the surprise effect contained in the final links of the sequence, to leave an indelible impression on the listeners of what was said.

6

Antithesis

Antithesis (contrast) is a stylistic figure of contrast, consisting in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, images, states, interconnected by a common design or internal meaning. Sometimes, in order to enhance the perception of the properties of an object or phenomenon, it is enough to give some contrasting, polar example, such as “For some people, self-development is nothing, but for others, it’s everything.”

7

Hint

The use of this rhetorical device is justified if you have sophisticated enough listeners who will undoubtedly be able to understand what you are implying. It is also convenient to use a hint if, for one reason or another, you cannot or do not want to directly express your thoughts. Here is one example of a hint: Barack Obama, the winner of one very large award, cannot stop US military intervention in the affairs of other states.

In this case, the hint is that the Nobel PEACE Prize, which, as is known, was awarded to the American president, does not correspond to the actual state of affairs: hostilities were not stopped, which means peace was not achieved. To avoid directly blaming Barack Obama for failing to directly implement promised peacekeeping measures, this phrase included an allusion to “one very large bonus.”

8

Hyperbola

Simply put, this is an exaggeration. It is reasonable to use this technique of oratory only if you are sure that what is said will not be perceived by listeners as fiction, and also will not sound too emotional or too pathetic.

Hyperbole is aimed at strengthening and emphasizing certain properties or features of the subject of thought. For example, the phrase “you have to be a complete fool to think so” is intended to discourage listeners from any desire to agree with the dubious point of view presented by the speaker, that is, to automatically force the audience to support the speaker’s opinion.

9

Insert

An insertion is a special remark that is made, at first glance, in passing. However, such remarks can add a strong flavor to what is being said and change the listener's perception in the desired direction. For example, in order to involve the public in the important problem that is being discussed, you can just insert into your speech a simple and understandable phrase for everyone: “but it’s not for me to tell you this...”

So the statement “today in our country we often encounter corruption, but it’s not for me to tell you about it...” will not leave people in your audience indifferent to the problem you raised, and will attract the closest attention of listeners to it.

10

Rhetorical questions

You should ask questions that do not require an answer in your speech carefully. It is important that your listeners share your position on this issue, otherwise the answer to this question may not be as obvious as you think. For example, the question “is it really so difficult to spend 20 minutes a day on self-development?” will not always have a clear negative answer, but this is not uncommon.

11

Advance notice

Advance notice helps prepare your audience to listen carefully to your prepared speech. It is important to make the audience look forward to your talk by creating interest in what you are going to talk about from the very beginning. It's like a movie trailer with interesting moments, after which the viewer is left looking forward to watching the whole film.

In this case, at the beginning of your speech it would be advantageous to say, for example, the phrase “you may be surprised by what I’m about to tell you...”. This beginning will make the audience listen with curiosity to your every word.

12

Delay

Delay can be used to warm up listeners' interest after they have received advance notice. This way we further increase the curiosity of the listeners by not immediately laying all the cards on the table. By delaying, the speaker condemns the listener to languor and thereby increases the tension of attention during the speech in order to present the audience with the climax of his speech at the most appropriate moment.

13

Voltage increase

Strengthening the attention of listeners is the skillful use of a whole set of complex techniques, which indicates a high level of oratorical skill of the speaker. The effect of increasing tension is usually achieved through the combined use of foreshadowing and delay, as well as through the use of allegories, allusions, and other rhetorical techniques. Repetition also helps build tension.

14

Surprise

In order to increase the attention of listeners at the right moment, the speaker can use words and actions that no one expects from him. For example, the famous Bismarck took his listeners by surprise by half speaking: “I, too, am for the abolition of the death penalty,” and after a noticeable pause, he continued: “But I am for the murderer to start!” Such techniques are good when they are used in doses and appropriately, otherwise the effect of surprise may be smoothed out.

And finally, let's briefly look at framing and sophistry.

How to structure a speech according to the rules of oratory

In order to catch and hold the attention of the audience, competent speech must obey the rules of oratory, regardless of the goals, composition and conditions of the speech.

Briefly, the basics of oratory can be formulated as the basic rules to which any direction of rhetoric is subject.

Clear structure of the speech.

The structure and purpose of the speech delivered must be clear not only to the speaker, but also to the audience. The narrative is constructed in a logical sequence, when each subsequent thought follows from the previous one. In this case, the law of amplification is observed, when each subsequent argument is more weighty and convincing than the previous one.

Competent and expressive language.

Nothing kills a performance like speech with grammatical and spelling errors. Another disease of speakers is parasitic words that can drive listeners to white heat. The basis of oratory speech is its purity and literacy.

Objective and useful information.

The speaker has the right to his own point of view, which he convincingly conveys to the audience, but the information must be verified, truthful and objective.

Balance between emotions and facts.

Bare emotions do not inspire confidence in anyone, while at the same time, dry facts and figures are boring to listen to even for a trained public. Dilute the numbers with emotions and interesting stories, this will make the presentation balanced.

Laconic speech.

A long, confusing monologue with a lot of deviations from the topic causes boredom in listeners at best, and irritation at worst. Aerobatics when brevity is combined with information capacity. They say about such performances that “every word is worth its weight in gold.” Learn to strictly adhere to the rules, this is how you show respect for the audience and practice speaking strictly to the point.

Appropriate pauses.

Give special attention to pauses in oral speech. Short stops after key points or before particularly important information set a certain rhythm, the listener gets the opportunity to think about what he heard, and the speaker gets to collect his thoughts. Don’t be afraid of pauses and don’t fill them with mooing, groaning and other parasitic interjections.

Portrait of the audience.

Any speaker must take into account the nature and composition of the audience to which he speaks. There is a fine line here: you need to raise your listeners to your level, but at the same time speak in such a way that people understand you. The power of words in oratory depends on the impression the speaker makes on the audience. This includes intonation, appearance, and demeanor. It is necessary to maintain a balance, without stooping to familiarity or ingratiation, but also without raising the bar of demands on the audience.

Improvisation.

The speaker must take into account the response of the audience. A speaker who does not feel the “breath of the audience” will not convince anyone of anything. One of the essential qualities of a good speaker is flexibility and the ability to improvise. To develop the skill of improvisation, you need to work on logical and imaginative thinking, expand your horizons and vocabulary. The more immersed you are in the topic of your speech, the more natural the improvisation will be.

Prepared jokes, quotes, stories.

“Not a single improvisation comes to me as well as the one that I prepared for three days.” Mark Twain.

To liven up the presentation, experienced speakers do “homework” that helps defuse the situation, find the key to a difficult audience, or fill a forced pause due to a technical failure. It could be a funny story, a paradoxical fact, a joke or an anecdote on the topic.

The speech is decorated with quotes from recognized leaders. Jokes shouldn't be sight-read, but reading quotes is fine. To enhance the effect of a bright saying, write it down on a card, pause during your speech, take out the card and read out the quote.

Sense of humor.

A good joke relieves tension, puts the audience at ease with the speaker, and smoothes out the rough edges of speech. Witty speeches are remembered better. But humor must be appropriate and resonate with the situation.

Narrative style.

The style of oratory should take into account the situation, the type of rhetorical speech and the nature of the audience. The style should be appropriate and not cause confusion among the audience.

What is the situation with rhetoric in our time?

In some places it is taught and is not an elective, but a compulsory discipline. However, this, alas, does not reduce the tongue-tiedness and basic inability to speak publicly. Sociologists once asked respondents what they were most afraid of. The answers were quite predictable - serious illness or death: both our own and those close to us. Indeed, we often find ourselves powerless against this scourge. But in second place, with a very small margin from the fear of death, is... the fear of public speaking. Strange and unexpected? This is another way to say...

Remember yourself during your school years. When at the beginning of the lesson the homework check began and someone was certainly called to the board. How did you feel when your name was called? Even when I was ready and confident in myself, excitement and even panic still began. You walk to the board - and it seems that your steps are echoing loudly in the silence, and your heart is pounding as if it is trying to jump out of your chest. Give or take - you are going to execution. So there were fears, and what other ones!

From these half-childish fears follows the first need for rhetoric as a way to gain confidence in one’s abilities. After all, if you figure out why some people are afraid to open their mouths at the blackboard, why are they overcome by muteness, although they know everything or almost everything? They simply do not have the skill of coherent, competent, beautiful speech - all those skills that rhetoric teaches.

And when there is also chaos in the head, in thoughts, then in oral, in spoken speech there will be the same confusion. If you cannot formulate the theses of your future speech orally, in theory, you will almost certainly get lost and confused in practice. So the sooner and more holistically the worldview and system of our views is formed, the better for us. And then your head will be clear.

In general, it is enough to ask yourself a simple question: what will happen if you cannot perform adequately and fail miserably? The world will not disappear. We must understand that any experience is valuable, including negative ones. In short, you can gain more than you can lose. And there are plenty of ways to get rid of fears.

Secondly, rhetoric is simply irreplaceable when we go through the process of primary and, especially, secondary socialization - from family to friendly company, school and university, not to mention adult, independent life. Everyone around us helps us decide on life - and, more often than not, doing this not with the help of non-verbal means of communication, but through the living word. There is no complete replacement for him, and it is unlikely that one will ever be found. If you do not acquire the skills of successful communication and meaningful communication in time, you are unlikely to achieve anything significant in life. So you will, as they say, stew in your own juices, you will be dumb like a fish, and you will begin to frantically swallow grievances mixed with anger and envy at the world around you - they say, I am so wonderful, but I was underestimated, not noticed. It's better to act! How did Demosthenes, the greatest orator of antiquity. After all, he didn’t show any hope, but he overcame his weaknesses - physical and spiritual - and became what he became. So there is someone to look up to.

When experienced trainers in the field of rhetoric begin to ask the audience who and why wants to learn how to speak well in public, many are disingenuous and rush to hide behind beautiful phrases like “I want a promotion” or “I want to influence others.” All these remarks have their share of truth, but not all of it. And the whole secret, or rather, the lack of one, is that many people secretly want to enjoy the very process of speaking and the effect it produces. They are only embarrassed or afraid to admit it - to themselves and to people.

So, thirdly, there is little that compares to the pleasure of a successful public speaking, especially when you get a taste for this business. Just imagine in the foreseeable future - they listen to you with ever-increasing attention, people greedily catch your every word, the contact between you and the audience is strong and stable, the mood is friendly. Of course, you still need to grow and reach such an almost ideal situation. But here, too, everything is in our hands.

Fourthly, the power of a word increases many times over when this word is public, heard, and then picked up by many. Moreover, if this word comes from a person who is competent in many matters, who behaves confidently and calmly, maintains a sense of self-esteem, is friendly towards the audience and does not rise above it. A good speaker, and part-time psychologist or teacher, educator is a godsend for any company, educational institution, or team.

Finally, for those who dream of a career and financial success, the word is also a powerful lever and tool for influencing the minds and feelings of people. Of course, not all of us can be great speakers - some need to sow, and plow, and build, and make something with their own hands - but the boss and leader who does not go into his pocket for words, who has a speech, whoever has the gift of persuasion and charm is no longer just a boss and leader, but a real charismatic leader, whom people will follow to the ends of the earth. If we delve into history that is not so distant from us, and read memoirs, we will find out what wonderful speakers Napoleon Bonaparte, Trotsky, Hitler and Mussolini were. At the same time, they do not cease to be great dictators and villains. That is why it is important to skillfully manage your influence and not use it to harm. So the poet Vladimir Mayakovsky is three times right when he called the word “commander of human strength” (“To Sergei Yesenin,” 1926).

And the word is the main tool of the speaker, given to him from God or from nature. And those who have taken up rhetoric seriously and for a long time will never ask why it is needed.

There is a science in the world that has a proud name - rhetoric. It’s a pity, of course, but there are people who don’t know about its existence or its significance. So it is rhetoric that deals with issues of correct and beautiful speech, in the simplest language. It is rhetoric that sorts out mistakes in communication. In our opinion, it would not hurt to introduce it as a compulsory subject in schools. It’s just that, looking at today’s younger generation, it’s clear that many could definitely use it.

And in conclusion, returning to the question of the relevance of Aristotle’s statement, we can say that it is more than relevant. After all, if you think about it, being well prepared, having a decent vocabulary, being able to collect your thoughts into a single whole and convey them to the audience, taking into account the characteristics of the audience, is very hard work. But feasible. After all, as Cicero said:

“Eloquence is something that is more difficult than it seems, and is born from a lot of knowledge and effort.”

It was no coincidence that he put effort after knowledge. Only by understanding well why this or that knowledge is needed will a person try to master it.

Well, even if not all of us master the art of eloquence, we can and should speak beautifully, correctly, politely and clearly. This is precisely why Aristotle’s statement is still relevant today. People are gradually forgetting how to speak the way they were supposed to, and no matter how sad it may be, the fact remains a fact. But it’s in our power to fix everything. At least on a personal level. Is not it?

“The tongue is small, but it controls the whole body”, “Don’t rush with your tongue, hurry with your deeds”, “Speak boldly for a just cause (stand boldly)”, “For a great cause - a great word”, “Win ​​with a living word”, “Good speech is good and listen”, “You can hold the horse on the reins, but you can’t take the words out of your mouth.” Russian folk proverbs

Before considering the topic of the formation and development of rhetoric in Rus' (in Russia), it is worth recalling where rhetoric arose and why.

Oratorical techniques

Features of oratory are associated with the mechanisms of influence of the speaker’s speech on the audience here and now. Rhetoric is oral speech, and most people do not perceive information well by ear. Oratorical techniques stimulate the attention and imaginative thinking of listeners, and help to assimilate the material.

• When presenting complex material or dry digital data, use visual comparisons and examples that evoke figurative associations.
• Explain a complex concept several times , coming up with new images and comparisons. Use different forms of repetition to reinforce the material.
• Use means of artistic expression that make speech figurative and help the perception of information: allegory - an explanation of an abstract concept through a concrete image, all fables are based on allegories;
• antithesis - a sharp opposition of concepts, the contrast of images makes speech bright and emotional;
• hyperbole - deliberate exaggeration helps to place emphasis, but the main thing here is not to go too far.

Techniques of a good speaker

Oratory techniques - what are they? These are well-known tricks that a speaker uses to make a speech accessible to the audience and to increase the digestibility of information. There are a huge number of such techniques. Below are two basic public speaking techniques.

1. Comparison. Often the speaker's speech is replete with abstract descriptions that are difficult to imagine in the mind. Since information is better perceived when it receives a figurative projection in the mind, the speaker resorts to comparisons that make the abstract more material. To convey a certain mood, the speaker sometimes uses hidden comparisons - metaphors.
2. Repeat. Everyone knows the expression “Repetition is the mother of learning.” The art of public speaking often refers to this saying, because the more often a person receives the same information, the more firmly it is fixed in his mind. It is very important for a speaker to convey to the listener the main idea of ​​his speech, which is helped by appropriate repetition of the key idea.

In addition to comparison and repetition, the rules of oratory also advise resorting to allegories, rhetorical questions, appeals, hyperboles, irony and other means of speech expression.

Two ways to develop speaking abilities

Every person without serious speech pathologies is capable of learning rhetoric; all it takes is time and perseverance. Perhaps the only quality that does not contribute to mastering the art of oratory is laziness.

Honed eloquence skills play into our hands in different areas of life and situations: during an interview, project presentation, answering an exam, when delivering ceremonial speeches, reports, etc.

There are 2 ways to master rhetoric:

• Regular self-study will help you master the skills of oratory, as they once helped even the tongue-tied Demosthenes. First of all, this is work on the technique and culture of speech. The more you practice in front of a mirror or phone camera, the freer, cleaner and more harmonious your monologues will be. What you can work on at home: Practice calm, measured breathing, low speech rate, lively intonation without falsehood.
• Develop the strength of your voice and clear diction.
• Learn to work with texts: paraphrase the content of small passages in your own words, concentrating the meaning in one sentence;
• look for key phrases in the texts and formulate them in your own way;
• retell what you read, highlighting only the most important things.

Tips for a speaker

Mastering oratory skills, at first glance, may seem like a difficult task, however, following the rules of the oratory course, learning rhetoric will not be difficult. Some tips for inexperienced speakers will also help in this matter:

• In order for spontaneous speech to flow freely, you need to engage in a kind of “chatterology,” that is, learn to talk about all sorts of nonsense. You can train on anything. For example, for 10 minutes try to talk about only one item (bag, cat, plant, pan, etc.);
• the speaker cannot afford to “traumatize” the audience’s hearing with parasitic words, therefore, if there are any, it is necessary to urgently get rid of them;
• background knowledge and a rich vocabulary are very important in speeches, so it is recommended to read a lot (not only fiction), follow changes in society, communicate with people and, in general, be an active part of society;
• You can only get rid of the fear of public speaking through public speaking, so you need to pull yourself together before every public appearance. Over time, experience will come, performances will seem like a routine and therefore will no longer inspire fear;
• When speaking in front of people, it is important to always remain yourself, without playing or deceiving. Only an honest and open speaker can win the trust of the public.

Any undertaking, at first glance, seems difficult, but do not be afraid. With the right approach and diligent study, any craft or art can be mastered—even one as demanding as rhetoric.