Fine and expressive means of language: list with name and description, examples

Visual and expressive means of language are perhaps the most confusing and difficult topic for those who are not friends with literature and verbal figures. If you have never been impressed by classical literature, and especially poetry, then perhaps getting to know this topic will allow you to look at many works through the eyes of the author and spark an interest in the literary word.

Means of expression in the poem “Leaves” by Tyutchev

To better consolidate the topic, we will look at specific poems and, using their examples, we will try to figure out what the techniques of expressiveness are.
This poetic attempt by the writer to understand the meaning of life and mourn its transience is a true masterpiece of landscape lyricism. She is like a monologue of leaves that are sad about their fate and the summer that has flown by so unnoticed.

There are many means of expression here. This is personification (the leaves speak, think, the author presents them to the reader as living beings), and antithesis (the leaves contrast themselves with the pine needles), and comparison (“hedgehog needles” they call pine needles). Here we can also see alliteration techniques (sounds “zh”, “ch”, “sh”).

Playing with tense forms of verbs helps the author achieve the effect of dynamics and movement. Thanks to this technique, the reader practically feels the transience of time and the movement of leaves. Well, like any poem, “Leaves” is not without the use of epithets. There are a lot of them here, they are colorful and alive.

Pay attention to the size of the poem. In just four short lines, the poet uses many means of expression and raises several philosophical questions

Always be attentive when reading poetry, and you will be pleasantly surprised at how much the author tells us.

Paths in Russian

Metaphor

Metaphor is the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the principle of similarity; sometimes called implicit comparison. For example, in Marina Tsvetaeva’s poem we read “And the green of my eyes, and a gentle voice, and the gold of my hair.” Here the word “gold” is used in a figurative sense based on the principle of similarity to color.

In literature one can find extended metaphors, when the same image is revealed over several phrases or even an entire work; An example is the poem by S. Yesenin “The golden grove dissuaded...”, built on several extended metaphors.

Metonymy

Transferring meaning based on the principle of contiguity. For example, in the everyday expression “the kettle has boiled” a metonymy is used: the kettle is not boiling, the water in the kettle is boiling.

Synecdoche

It is close to the previous means, sometimes it is even considered a special case of metonymy. This is the use of a part instead of a whole or vice versa. We find an example of the use of synecdoche in A.S. Pushkin’s poem “The Bronze Horseman”: “All the flags will come to visit us.” The poet used the word "flags" instead of "countries".

Epithet

This is a bright, colorful definition that characterizes a concept or phenomenon. Epithets are very common in poetic speech. For example, in S. Yesenin we read: “I would like to get lost in the greenery of your hundred-ringed ones” (the epithet is the word “hundred-belled”).

Oral folk art is characterized by so-called “constant” epithets: “good fellow”, “red maiden”, “clear moon”, etc.

Comparison

A visual medium based on comparison of one object or phenomenon with another.

Comparison can be made using a comparative phrase or a comparative clause.

Comparisons can also be made using the instrumental case. For example, “he fell to the ground like a stone” = like a stone.

In A. Akhmatova’s poem “Requiem” we read: “They took you away at dawn, she followed you, as if on a takeaway...” Here the comparison is framed in a comparative phrase.

Occasionalisms

These are words coined by the authors themselves. V. Mayakovsky and other futurists have a lot of original neologisms, but they were not the only ones who used occasionalisms.

Some words invented by writers have now entered our language and become commonly used, for example, the word “pilot”, created by V. Khlebnikov.

Periphrase

This is a descriptive statement used instead of directly naming an object or phenomenon. For example, from A.S. Pushkin: “I love you, Peter’s creation!” The paraphrase “Petra creation” means St. Petersburg.

The real genius of periphrasis was M. A. Bulgakov. For example, in the novel “The Master and Margarita” we read: “... the one whom, quite recently, poor Ivan convinced at the Patriarch’s that the devil does not exist. This non-existent one was sitting on the bed.” All this means Woland.

The purposes of using paraphrase are different:

• etiquette (instead of curse words or words that for some reason are considered indecent, for example relating to physiological functions);
• religious or dictated by superstition (“evil” instead of “demon”, “deceased” instead of “dead”; this also includes the names of animals associated with ancient beliefs: bear, etc.);
• strictly literary: for beauty or to avoid unjustified tautology.

Language is the most powerful tool in the hands of the classics

Each era leaves its mark on the language and its visual means. Pushkin's language is far from Mayakovsky's creative style. The poetics of Tsvetaeva’s legacy differs sharply from the unique texts of Vladimir Vysotsky. The poetic language of A. S. Pushkin is permeated with epithets, metaphors, personifications, I. A. Krylov is a fan of allegory, hyperbole, and irony. Each writer has his own style, created by him in the creative process, in which his favorite figurative language means play an important role.

Means of artistic expression (table)

Means of artistic expression are divided into lexical and syntactic.

Lexical means of expression

This is the lexical meaning of words and expressions. The lexical meaning of a word is the meaning, concept, meaning of a phenomenon/object.

For example, tropes (words are used figuratively).

Syntactic means of expression

These are figures of speech, the way the author creates phrases, thereby placing emphasis and emotionally influencing the reader.

EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF SYNTAX

To enhance the expressiveness of the text, a variety of structural, semantic and intonation features of syntactic units of language (phrases and sentences), as well as features of the compositional structure of the text, its division into paragraphs, and punctuation design can be used. The most significant expressive means of syntax are: - syntactic structure of the sentence and punctuation marks; — special syntactic means of expression (figures); - special techniques of compositional speech design of the text (question-answer form of presentation, improperly direct speech, quotation, etc.).

Syntactic sentence structure and punctuation marks

From the point of view of the syntactic structure of a sentence, the following are especially important for the expressiveness of a text: the grammatical features of a sentence: simple or complex, two-part or one-part, complete or incomplete, uncomplicated or complicated (i.e. containing series of homogeneous members, isolated members of a sentence, introductory words or appeals); type of sentence according to the purpose of the statement: narrative, interrogative, incentive; characterization of a sentence by emotional coloring: non-exclamatory - exclamatory. Any of the listed grammatical features of a sentence can acquire special semantic significance in the text and be used to strengthen the author’s thoughts, express the author’s position, and create imagery. For example, in the poem by A. A. Blok “Night, street, lantern, pharmacy...” five extremely short one-part noun sentences create particular tension and expressiveness of the text, with sharp jolts indicating the development of the theme and emphasizing the idea of ​​the transience of human life, which swirls in a meaningless round dance night, streets, pharmacies and the dim light of a lantern. In the poem by A. A. Blok “I am nailed to the tavern counter...” already in the first stanza:

The transition from two-part sentences, where the lyrical “I” acts as the subject, to sentences where the subject of the action (doer) is eliminated, expresses the inability of the lyrical hero to resist the fatal movement of inevitability and the action of external forces beyond his control. In M. Yu. Lermontov’s poem “Prayer” in the last stanza:

The impersonal sentences in the last two lines convey the special state of the lyrical hero, who, not finding support in himself and turning to God, experienced the “power of grace” of prayer and is in the power of this divine power, which brings hope for the salvation of the soul. Interrogative, motivating and exclamatory sentences can also emphasize and strengthen certain aspects of the author’s thoughts, assessments and emotions. For example, in a poem by A. A. Akhmatova:

special expressiveness and emotional tension are created as a result of the use, already at the beginning of the text, of two interrogative and two incentive sentences, conveying the heroine’s mental pain and the request-plea addressed to her lover to let her go to “prophetic concerns.” The role of punctuation marks as expressive means in the text is determined primarily by their ability to convey a variety of shades of thoughts and feelings of the author: surprise (question mark), doubt or special emotional tension (ellipses), joy, anger, admiration (exclamation mark). A dot can emphasize the neutrality of the author’s position, a dash can add dynamism to a phrase, or, conversely, pause the narrative. For the semantic content of a text that includes a complex non-union sentence, the nature of the punctuation mark between parts of this sentence, etc. matters. A special role for creating the expressiveness of the text is played by the author's punctuation marks , which do not correspond to generally accepted punctuation rules, violate the automaticity of perception of the text and serve the purpose of enhancing the semantic or emotional significance of one or another of its fragments, focusing the reader’s attention on the content of a concept, image, etc.:

Ex. 65. In the given texts, find syntactic means of expression and determine their functions.

1) Sounded over a clear river, Rang in a darkened meadow, Rolled over a silent grove, Lighted up on the other bank. (A. A. Fet)

2) Russia is not only a state... It is a superstate, an ocean, an element that has not yet taken shape, has not yet entered its destined shores. It has not yet sparkled in its sharpened and faceted concepts in its originality, as a rough diamond begins to sparkle in a diamond. She is still in foreboding, in fermentation, in endless desires and endless organic possibilities. Russia is an ocean of land, spanning a full sixth of the world and holding the West and the East in touch with its outstretched wings. (N.K. Roerich)

Ex. 66. Determine the features of the syntactic structure of sentences and the role of punctuation marks in the text of I. S. Turgenev.

Thousands of my brothers and brothers are dying there, in the distance, under the impregnable walls of fortresses; thousands of brothers thrown into the gaping jaws of death by inept leaders. They die without a murmur; they are destroyed without repentance; they do not regret themselves; Even those incompetent leaders do not regret them... Hot, heavy drops make their way, slide across my cheeks... slide onto my lips... What is this? Tears... or blood?

Special expressive means of syntax (figures)

Figures (rhetorical figures, stylistic figures, figures of speech) are stylistic devices based on special combinations of words that go beyond the scope of ordinary practical use, and aimed at enhancing the expressiveness and figurativeness of the text. The main figures of speech include rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal, repetition, syntactic parallelism, polyunion, non-union, ellipsis, inversion, parcellation, antithesis, gradation, oxymoron, nominative themes . A rhetorical question is a figure in which a statement is made in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer; it is used to enhance the emotionality, expressiveness of speech, and to attract the reader’s attention to a particular phenomenon:

There is nothing more dangerous than half-knowledge. This applies equally to science, technology, and culture. How can one judge the work of Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy by watching the film, but without reading “War and Peace”? (From newspapers)

A rhetorical exclamation is a figure that contains a statement in the form of an exclamation. Rhetorical exclamations enhance the expression of certain feelings in a message; they are usually distinguished not only by special emotionality, but also by solemnity and elation:

Rhetorical appeal is a stylistic figure consisting of an emphasized appeal to someone or something to enhance the expressiveness of speech. It serves not so much to name the addressee of the speech, but rather to express the attitude towards what is said in the text. Rhetorical appeals can create solemnity and pathosity of speech, express joy, regret and other shades of mood and emotional state:

Attention! Rhetorical questions, rhetorical exclamations and rhetorical appeals as means of linguistic expressiveness are widely used in journalistic and artistic texts. The mentioned figures are also possible in texts of scientific and colloquial styles, but are unacceptable in texts of official business style.

Ex. 67. Find rhetorical questions, rhetorical exclamations and rhetorical appeals in the texts. Explain what they are used for.

1) Eagles sometimes descend lower than chickens: But chickens can never reach the clouds! (I. A. Krylov)

2) How long, O happiness, will you decorate the Villains with crowns? (M. Yu. Lermontov)

3) The earth is the mistress! I bowed my forehead to you. (V. Solovyov)

4) But there is no people on earth who would like war. There are forces that throw entire nations into the fire. Can its ashes not knock in the writer’s heart, the ashes of the vast conflagrations of the Second World War? Can an honest writer not speak out against those who would like to doom humanity to self-destruction? (M. A. Sholokhov)

Repetition (positional-lexical repetition, lexical repetition) is a stylistic figure consisting of the repetition of any member of a sentence (word), part of a sentence or a whole sentence, several sentences, stanzas in order to attract special attention to them.

Attention! Repetition as a stylistic figure should be distinguished from the means of textual communication of the same name. The same applies to syntactic parallelism, parcellation and ellipsis.

“You are still young, very young!” - Ivan Ignatievich sighed. (V.F. Tendryakov); A miracle in the warmth, living behind the stove. Miracle listens to fairy tales, howling in the trumpet. A furry, kind, homely miracle. A miracle - the dead mother's down scarf on her sore shoulders. Miracle - grandmother’s hands, her grumbling and noisy swearing. A miracle is a counter person. The miracle is his voice, eyes, ears. Miracle is life! (V.P. Astafiev) Varieties of repetition are anaphora, epiphora and pickup . Anaphora (in translation from Greek - ascent, rise), or unity of beginning, is the repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of lines, stanzas or sentences:

She thought: could this beauty still appear to people now, could it be that during this time that she lived in the world, the beauty has not faded or faded at all? (V. G. Rasputin)

Epiphora (in translation from Greek - addition, final sentence of a period) is the repetition of words or groups of words at the end of lines, stanzas or sentences:

They got a loaf of light bread - joy! Today there is a good film in the club - joy! A two-volume edition of Paustovsky was brought to the bookstore - joy! (A.I. Solzhenitsyn)

Picking up is the repetition of any segment of speech (sentence, poetic line) at the beginning of the corresponding segment of speech following it:

Serpilin was silent. He was silent and thought not about separate education and not about the sons of this woman who liked him more and more, but about his own life and about his own son... (K. M. Simonov)

Attention! Various types of repetitions as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of the text are widely used in artistic, journalistic and colloquial styles of speech. In order to attract attention to any phenomenon or concept, repetition can also be used in scientific, business and official business styles.

Ex. 68. Find different types of repetitions in the texts. Determine their functions.

1) Dear friend, and in this quiet house the fever strikes me. I can’t find peace in a quiet house Near a peaceful fire. (A. A. Blok)

2) Young trumpeters are thundering above us, Alien constellations are rising above us, Alien banners are rustling above us... A little wind, a little north - Rush after them, Rush after them, Chase after them, Roll in the fields, Sing in the steppes! (E. G. Bagritsky)

3) The world's nomadism began in the darkness: It is the trees that roam the night earth, It is the grapes that wander with golden wine, It is the stars that wander from house to house, It is the rivers that begin their journey - backwards! And I want to sleep on your chest. (M. I. Tsvetaeva)

Parallelism (syntactic parallelism) (in translation from Greek - going side by side) - identical or similar construction of adjacent parts of the text: adjacent sentences, poetic lines, stanzas, which, when correlated, create a single image:

I look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing... (M. Yu. Lermontov);

I was a ringing string to you, I was a blooming spring to you, But you didn’t want flowers, And you didn’t hear the words? (K. D. Balmont)

Attention! Syntactic parallelism as a means of linguistic expressiveness is characteristic of artistic and journalistic styles of speech. In scientific and official business styles, the named stylistic figure is used as one of the means of logical highlighting. It should be taken into account that, in addition to syntactic parallelism, there is compositional parallelism. It is based on the similarity of plot lines and semantic parallelism between parts of the text. For example, a description of a change in nature may precede a description of a change in the character’s internal state.

Polyconjunction (polysyndeton) is a repetition of conjunctions that is redundant from a grammatical point of view, felt as superfluous and used as an expressive means: How strange, and alluring, and bearing, and wonderful in the word: road! And how wonderful this road itself is (N.V. Gogol);

Pseudoculture may not differ from culture either in word or gesture, but in deed, but in consequences, but in its fallibility, it differs. (S. P. Zalygin)

Attention! Polyunion can be used as a means of increasing the semantic significance of the listed elements, giving the speech a solemn tone and emotional elation.

Non-union (asyndeton) is the deliberate omission of conjunctions between homogeneous members of a sentence or parts of a complex sentence:

Non-union as a stylistic device is used to enhance the figurativeness of speech, as well as to enhance the semantic opposition of the components of the statement and increase the expressiveness of the text. The first of these functions is characteristic of non-union in the artistic style of speech, the second - for non-union in the journalistic style.

Attention! Non-union and multi-union as expressive means are used in artistic, journalistic and colloquial styles of speech.

Ex. 69. Find cases of parallelism, polyunion and non-union. Determine their functions in texts.

1) Black raven in the snowy twilight, Black velvet on dark shoulders. (A. A. Blok)

2) The hour hand is approaching midnight. The candles fluttered like a wave of light. Thoughts stirred like a dark wave. Happy New Year, heart! (M. I. Tsvetaeva)

3) No, I will say positively, there was no poet with such universal responsiveness as Pushkin, and it’s not just responsiveness that matters, but its amazing depth, but the transformation of his spirit into the spirit of foreign peoples, an almost perfect transformation. (F. M. Dostoevsky) 4) If such masters as Akhmatova or Zamyatin are walled up alive for the rest of their lives, condemned to the grave to create in silence, without hearing the echo of their writing, this is not only their personal misfortune, but the grief of the entire nation, but danger to the entire nation. (A.I. Solzhenitsyn) 5) Each of them (those who died during the Great Patriotic War) was the whole world. And this world went out forever. Along with him went to the graves unfulfilled dreams, unfulfilled weddings, unborn children, unsung songs, unbuilt houses, unwritten books. (V.V. Bykov)

Ellipsis (in translation from Greek - lack, lack) is a stylistic device consisting in the deliberate (deviating from the neutral norm) omission of any member or part of a sentence: - Here I am with a broadsword! - shouted a courier galloping towards him with a mustache as long as an arshin (N.V. Gogol); And a minute later the captain, Chang and the artist are already on a dark street, where the wind and snow are blowing out the lanterns. (I. A. Bunin) With ellipsis, the predicate verb is most often omitted, which gives the text special expressiveness and dynamism, emphasizing the swiftness of the action and the intensity of the hero’s mental state. Ellipsis can also be expressed in the omission of other members of the sentence, including the entire predicative basis:

An engine roar, an annoying howl that takes out the soul - a waterfall from the sky... And the unshakably strong earth shakes, breaks, crumbles... Face, chest, stomach, knees into the unreliable ground. (V.F. Tendryakov)

In addition to creating a special expressiveness of the text, ellipsis can also perform other stylistic functions: - give the beginning of the text (beginning) an intriguing character: After lunch, they left the brightly and hotly lit dining room on the deck and stopped at the railing (I. A. Bunin); - express the author’s assessment of the content of the previous part of the text: And then you think: on our global spaceship, where some also live this way and others that way (this applies to individual people, entire states, and entire nations), in the face of a closely approaching environmental disasters will turn out to be all equal: the president with the last “hard worker”, the billionaire with the last beggar... in the end the chances will be equal to zero. Comforts. (V. A. Soloukhin)

Inversion (in translation from Greek - rearrangement, turning over) is a change in the usual order of words in a sentence in order to emphasize the semantic significance of any element of the text (word, sentence), giving the phrase a special stylistic coloring: solemn, high-sounding or, conversely , conversational, somewhat reduced characteristics. The following combinations are considered inverted in the Russian language: - the agreed definition comes after the word being defined: I am sitting behind bars in a damp dungeon (M. Yu. Lermontov); But there were no swells running through this sea; the stuffy air did not flow: a great thunderstorm was brewing (I. S. Turgenev); - additions and circumstances expressed by nouns come before the word to which they relate: Monotonous clock strike (monotonous clock strike); - the predicate comes before the subject, known from the previous context (the subject is “given” in the sentence, and the predicate is “new”):

Zhilin is walking, keeping all the shadows. (L.N. Tolstoy)

Attention! As means of linguistic expressiveness, ellipsis and inversion are widely used in artistic and journalistic styles. They are unacceptable in official business and scientific styles of speech (with the exception of popular science).

Parcellation (in translation from French - particle) is a stylistic device that consists in dividing a single syntactic structure of a sentence into several intonational and semantic units - phrases. At the point where the sentence is divided, a period, exclamation and question marks, and an ellipsis can be used. In the morning, bright as a splint. Scary. Long. Ratnym. The rifle regiment was defeated. Our. In an unequal battle (R. Rozhdestvensky); Why isn't anyone outraged? Education and healthcare! The most important areas of society! Not mentioned in this document at all (From newspapers); The state needs to remember the main thing: its citizens are not individuals. And the people. (From newspapers) Parceling can enhance the expressiveness of the text, highlighting any details of the overall picture, emphasizing the significance of certain parts of the statement that are most important from the author’s point of view, and conveying the author’s attitude to what is being communicated.

Attention! Parcellation is typical for literary, journalistic and colloquial texts. It is unacceptable in scientific and official business texts.

Ex. 70. Find cases of ellipsis, inversion and parcellation. Determine their functions in texts.

1) But those who profess only a dead shell of churchliness are not fit to be leaders... The people will not accept these. If he receives it, he will reset it. (I. E. Shmelev)

2) We wanted songs - there were no words. We wanted to sleep - there were no dreams. We wore mourning - the orchestra played carcasses. (V. Tsoi)

3) And the first one is more complete, friends, more fully! And all the way to the bottom in honor of our union! (A.S. Pushkin)

4) Oh you, Motherland! ...You, immeasurable one, the tired and driven one falls to you, and you take your poor sons on your powerful chest, hug them with arms that span many miles, and feed them with eternal strength. (B.K. Zaitsev) 5) Who doubts our right and duty to think about the structure of the future Russia! Everything is changing in this world. Nobody knows the timing, the time will come - there will be a new Russia. (I.S. Shmelev) 6) By the way, on a cloudy day before rain, look closely at the light. Before the rain it is one, during the rain it is different, and after the rain it is completely special. Because wet leaves give the air a faint shine. Grey, soft and warm. (K. G. Paustovsky)

Gradation (in translation from Latin - gradual increase, strengthening) is a technique consisting in the sequential arrangement of words, expressions, tropes (epithets, metaphors, comparisons) in the order of strengthening (increasing) or weakening (decreasing) of a characteristic. Increasing gradation is usually used to enhance the imagery, emotional expressiveness and impact of the text:

Huge blue eyes glowed, burned, shone. (V. A. Soloukhin)

Descending gradation is used less frequently and usually serves to enhance the semantic content of the text and create imagery:

It should be taken into account that the gradation technique is based on a change in the attribute on an abstract scale of quantity (up: average - more - a lot - very much; down: a lot - less - little - very little) and an abstract rating scale (with a positive rating: good - quite good - very good - excellent - above the norm; with a negative assessment: bad - pretty bad - very bad - disgusting):

Attention! Gradation as a means of expressiveness is used in artistic, journalistic and colloquial styles of speech.

Ex. 71. Find examples of gradation in the texts, determine on what basis its members are arranged, describe its expressive role.

1) He brought it - and weakened, and lay down under the arch of the hut on his bast, and the poor slave died at the feet of the Invincible ruler. (A.S. Pushkin)

2) Will I find the same embrace there? Hello old man, will you meet me? Will the friends and brothers recognize the Sufferer after many years? (M. Yu. Lermontov)

3) Rus'! Rus! I see you from my wonderful, beautiful distance, I see you: poor, scattered and uncomfortable in you... (N.V. Gogol)

4) Sweet, kind, old, gentle, Don’t be friends with sad thoughts. (S. A. Yesenin)

5) And it became more and more difficult to walk. The wind roared, hitting people with cold, wet palms, trying to knock them off their feet. Above, something hideously huge, broken from its chains, was raging, sobbing, roaring. (V. M. Shukshin)

6) No, it would be unbearably terrible, an earthly destiny, if we were not always with us, neither our childhood days, nor our youth, nor our whole life in its last hour. (A. T. Tvardovsky)

Antithesis (translated from Greek as opposition) is a turn in which opposing concepts, positions, and images are sharply contrasted. To create an antithesis, antonyms are usually used - general linguistic and contextual:

Attention! Antithesis is used to enhance the expressiveness of speech, emphasizing contrasting images, contrasting assessments. Antithesis, like gradation, is characteristic primarily of artistic and journalistic texts.

Ex. 72. Find examples of antithesis in the texts. Determine what antonyms are used in them, how the technique of opposition affects the expressiveness of the text.

1) My faithful friend! my enemy is treacherous! My king, my slave! Native language! (V. Ya. Bryusov)

2) You are also poor, You are also abundant, You are also powerful, You are also powerless, Mother Rus'! (N. A. Nekrasov)

3) I’m sad because you’re having fun. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

4) The world is multifaceted, multicolored, Sometimes kind, sometimes cruel, It is generous and stingy, rich and poor: Look at it - it is all for us! (V. Alatyrtsev)

5) I am a king, I am a slave, I am a worm, I am God. (G. R. Derzhavin)

6) Faces appear, disappear, Sweet today, but far away tomorrow. (A. Akhmatova)

An oxymoron (in translation from Greek - witty-stupid) is a stylistic figure that combines usually incompatible concepts, usually contradicting each other (bitter joy, ringing silence, etc.); at the same time, a new meaning is obtained, and the speech acquires special expressiveness: From that hour, sweet torment began for Ilya, brightly scorching the soul (I. S. Shmelev);

There is a cheerful melancholy in the red of the dawn (S. A. Yesenin);

But I soon comprehended the mystery of their ugly beauty. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

Ex. 73. Find the oxymoron in the following texts. Explain its meaning and expressive role.

1) The forest silence mysteriously rustles, Autumn sings and wanders invisibly through the forests... It gets darker day after day, and here again the yearning song is heard accompanied by the ringing of gloomy pines. (I. A. Bunin)

2) Who to tell, with whom to share That sad joy that I remained alive. (S. A. Yesenin)

3) It's a sad time! the charm of my eyes, Your farewell beauty is pleasant to me - I love the lush decay of nature, Forests dressed in crimson and gold. (A.S. Pushkin)

4) From hateful love, from crimes, frenzy - Righteous Rus' will arise. (M. A. Voloshin)

Attention! An oxymoron as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of a text is permissible only in journalistic and artistic styles.

Nominative topics (segmented syntactic construction) is a stylistic figure, which is a construction divided into two parts, in which the first part denotes a concept that is relevant to the speaker or writer (the topic of the message), and the second part contains any statement about this concept. The first part of the nominative topic can be represented by a word, a combination of words, a sentence or even several sentences: Moscow! On the maps of the world there is no such word for us, filled with such content (L. M. Leonov); The fourth symphony, our symphony, my symphony, where is it? (Yu. M. Nagibin);

The expressive functions of the nominative theme are associated with its ability to highlight the most significant parts of the text, attract the attention of the reader or listener to them, and also give speech a special pathosity and expressiveness.

Attention! The nominative theme is widely used in literary and journalistic texts, in colloquial speech, as well as in works of popular science.

Ex. 74. Find constructions with nominative themes. Explain their functions in the text.

1) Citizenship... We have gradually reduced this great and invaluable concept to a demagogic prefix pronounced in a trained voice. (V.G. Rasputin) 2) Freedom from everything in the world - why do we need it if we don’t know why we are free? (S. L. Frank)

Generalization exercises

Ex. 75. a) Determine what means of linguistic expression are used in the text.

The city of Pushkin is the cradle of the poet’s creativity. This is where he spent his early years and where his first creative ideas were born. The beautiful landscapes of the parks, the majestic monuments of Russian military glory, the slender Cameron Gallery, and the sculpture “Girl with a Jug” evoke stanzas from many of Pushkin’s works. (According to G. A. Obernikhina)

b) Compare different explanations of the role of some linguistic means of expression in this text. Which of them seem most accurate to you and why?

1. The metaphor “the cradle of the poet’s creativity” serves to enhance the expressiveness of the text. 2. The metaphor “the cradle of the poet’s creativity” gives the text extraordinary expressiveness. 3. A number of homogeneous members of the sentence (“beautiful landscapes of parks, majestic monuments of Russian military glory, the slender Cameron Gallery, the sculpture “Girl with a Jug”) makes it possible to imagine the places where Pushkin spent his youth. 4. The last sentence sounds especially expressive due to a number of homogeneous members: “Beautiful landscapes of parks, majestic monuments of Russian military glory, the slender Cameron Gallery, the sculpture “Girl with a Jug” ...” 5. Using the metaphor “the cradle of the poet’s creativity,” the author characterizes the role of places, where Pushkin spent his youth, in his formation as a poet. G. A. Obernikhin reveals the content of this influence in the following series of homogeneous members of the sentence: “beautiful landscapes of parks, majestic monuments of Russian military glory, the slender Cameron Gallery, the sculpture “Girl with a Jug”.”

Ex. 76. Write down all the visual and expressive means from the texts: paths and their types; stylistic figures and their types. Indicate the means of creating images at the level of phonetics, vocabulary, morphology, word formation, syntax.

1) Why were there thunders of melodious passions in the language of departed people? And hints of the ringing of all times and feasts, And the harmony of colorful words?

Why in the language of modern people is the sound of bones being poured into a hole? Imitation of words, like the echo of rumor, Like the murmur of swamp grass?

Because when, young and proud, water appeared between the rocks, she was not afraid to break forward, - If you stand in front of her, she will kill you.

And he will kill, and flood, and run transparently, Only he values ​​his will. Thus is born the ringing for future times, For the present pale tribes. (K. D. Balmont)

2) And at night the forest took on an indescribably creepy, fairy-tale appearance: its blue wall grew higher, and in its depths, red furry animals darted and jumped madly between the black trunks.
They fell to the ground to the roots and, hugging the trunks, climbed up like agile monkeys, fought with each other, breaking branches, whistled, hummed, hooted, and the forest crunched, as if thousands of dogs were gnawing on bones. The figures of fire flowed in infinite variety between the black trunks, and the dance of these figures was tireless. Here, clumsily bouncing, tumbling, a large red bear rolls out to the edge of the forest and, losing tufts of fiery fur, climbs up the tree trunk, as if for honey, and, having reached the crown, embraces its branches with the shaggy embrace of its crimson paws, swings on them, showering pine needles a shower of golden sparks; Now the animal easily jumped to the next tree, and where it was, a multitude of blue candles were lit on the black, bare branches, purple mice were running along the branches, and with their bright movement you could clearly see how intricately blue smoke smoked and how along the bark of the trunk Hundreds of fire ants crawl up and down. (M. Gorky) 3) What am I thinking about? When I asked myself about this, I wanted to remember what exactly I was thinking about, and I immediately thought about my thinking and that thinking was the most amazing, the most incomprehensible thing in my life. What was I thinking about, what was in me? Some thoughts about the surroundings and a desire for some reason to remember, retain, preserve this surrounding... Another feeling of boundless happiness from this boundless peace, the all-encompassing harmony of the night, as well as a not fully recognized feeling of some kind of melancholy and some kind of self-interest . Melancholy from a deep subconscious feeling that only in me alone there is no peace, no thoughtlessness. And self-interest comes from an all-consuming thirst to somehow use this happiness and even the very melancholy and thirst, to create something out of them. Only a person wonders and is amazed at his own existence and thinks about it. Why did God mark me with the fatal sign of surprise, why does it keep growing in me? I feel infinitely alone in this midnight silence, magically ringing with myriads of crystal springs, flowing inexhaustibly into some bottomless womb. The light of Jupiter, dispersing the heavenly darkness, illuminates the vast space between the sky and the sea, the great temple of the night, above the royal gates of which he ascended as a sign of the holy spirit. And I am alone in this temple, I am awake in it. (According to I.A. Bunin) 4) Over the years, a person, no, no, and returns his thoughts to friendship. There are so many reasons for this! As life experience accumulates, a reassessment of values ​​occurs; even against his will, a person peers at those around him more closely, more demandingly. Humanity is vigilant and relentless in its pursuit of friendship. How folklore glorifies her! Classic! And how many wonderful examples there are around us! What an unfortunate year this year has been for my closest comrades! How many illnesses, worries and hardships befell them, and therefore me! And how little consolation I found for them, how few words, how little silent sympathy, how little... time! What kept me away from them, what distracted me from their pain, what urgent matters took precedence? But isn’t friendship an equally urgent, state and even global work? Our busyness turns out to be nothing more than the simplest, thick-skinned, indifferent coldness. If a person is faced with a daily pile of affairs, he, of course, will survive, but, without a doubt, the heartfelt, kind, sympathetic and responsive that connected us with him will perish. May you have time! Despite all good reasons, may you have time on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday. May you have time not only on the weekend. In the friendship calendar, all days are red. Make time for your worries Previous6Next

What are the figurative and expressive means of language?

All visual and expressive means are divided into:

• lexical (special: tropes, non-special: synonyms, antonyms, etc.)
• syntactic (stylistic figures of speech);
• phonetic.

Lexical figurative and expressive means of language - tropes - are words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to create an emotional image when describing a phenomenon. Paths make it possible not only to understand, but also to feel what is described or said in words.

Syntactic figurative and expressive means - figures of speech - are a special construction of words to enhance the emotional impact of the text. Figures of speech make you feel more strongly those moments on which the author emphasizes.

In turn, tropes and figures of speech have their own classification:

Basic elements - paths

So, below we list the main elements of lexical figurative and expressive means - tropes.

An epithet is an artistic and figurative description of a phenomenon: stately aspens, mighty oak, languid light.

A metaphor is a hidden comparison: an airplane wing, a crescent moon, a sunset fire.

Metonymy is the renaming of an object or phenomenon based on close, easily understood connections between the words being replaced. For example, the forest sings (instead of “the birds in the forest sing”); the city is sleeping (instead of “the inhabitants of the city are sleeping”); the kettle is boiling (instead of “the water in the kettle is boiling”).

Synecdoche is the name of a whole through its part and vice versa. For example, save a penny (money); the viewer(s) are worried.

Hyperbole is an artistic exaggeration: an ocean of love; endless plain; not seeing each other for a hundred years.

The main thing is not to overdo it

If we perceive the surrounding information through the prism of linguistic means of expressiveness, we can come to the conclusion that even colloquial speech refers to them quite often. It is not necessary to know the name of a figurative and expressive means of language in order to use it in speech. Rather, it happens unintentionally, unnoticed. It’s another matter when various figures of speech flow in the media, both appropriate and not. The abuse of tropes, stylistic devices, and other means of expressiveness makes speech difficult to perceive and oversaturated. Journalism and advertising are especially guilty of this, apparently because they deliberately use the power of language to influence the audience. The poet, in the rush of the creative process, does not think about what visual and expressive means to use; this is a spontaneous, “emotional” process.

Phonetic means of artistic expression

The euphony of a work is determined by the ratio of vowels and consonants. To make speech more pleasant to read, the number of vowel sounds should be approximately equal to consonants. The author can consciously select words that combine well with each other. In addition, there are expressive means that help achieve the desired effect:

Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonant sound in words that are adjacent. In English, a popular type of alliteration is when all the words in a work begin with the same consonant. Sometimes this is done with the hero’s first and last name.

Assonance is the same as alliteration, only the vowel sounds that are stressed are repeated.

Onomatopoeia is onomatopoeia. Various sounds are used to imitate the sounds of nature. Most often, hissing sounds are used to convey rustling sounds, as well as the consonants “g” and “r” to imitate noise and rumble.

Anaphora

Anaphora is unity of command. Every line of poetry or every sentence in prose begins with the same word or group of words. This is a very common technique that is widely used in literature, especially in poetry.

There are many examples of the use of anaphora. Let's say, in this children's song based on the poems of the poet Lev Oshanin:

May there always be sun, May there always be sky,

May there always be a mother

May it always be me.

In this example, a group of words is repeated. In addition to anaphora, the author uses syntactic parallelism (several lines in a row have the same syntactic structure).

Often in one work or even a passage, not one means of expression is used, but several.

Theory for task 26 from the Unified State Exam in Russian

Means of speech expression

- these are speech patterns, the main function of which is to give beauty and expressiveness, versatility and emotionality to the language.
Phonetic (sound), lexical (associated with a word), syntactic (associated with a phrase and sentence) means are distinguished. Phonetic means of expressiveness
1.
Alliteration
- repetition in the text of consonant or identical consonant sounds.
For example: City

gr
abil

,
gr
eb
, gr
abastal .
2. Assonance
- repetition of vowels.
For

example
: Chalk ,
chalk
all over
the
earth

At all times

limits.
The candle
was
burning
on the
table
,

Sv e

it was burning... (B. Pasternak) 3.
Onomatopoeia
- Reproduction of natural sound, imitation of sound.
For example: How the drops carry news about the ride, And all night long they keep clicking and driving, Knocking with a horseshoe on one nail, Here, now there, now in this entrance, now in this one. Lexical means of expressiveness (tropes) 1. Epithet
- A figurative definition characterizing a property, quality, concept, phenomenon For example:
golden grove, cheerful wind 2. Comparison
- A comparison of two objects, concepts or states that have a common attribute.
For example: And the birches stand like big candles. 3. Metaphor
- a figurative meaning of a word based on similarity.
For example: Chintz of the sky is blue. 4. Personification
- transferring human properties to inanimate objects.
For example: A bird cherry tree is sleeping in a white cape. 5. Metonymy
is the replacement of one word with another based on the contiguity of two concepts.
For example: I ate three plates. 6. Synecdoche
- replacing the plural with a singular, using the whole instead of a part (and vice versa).
For example: Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts... 7. Allegory
- allegory;
depiction of a specific concept in artistic images (in fairy tales, fables, proverbs, epics). For example: The fox
is an allegory of cunning,
the hare
is an allegory of cowardice
8. Hyperbole
is an exaggeration.
For example: I haven’t seen you for two hundred years. 9. Litotes
is an understatement.
For example: Wait 5 seconds. 10. Periphrase
- a retelling, a descriptive phrase containing an assessment.
For example: King of beasts (lion). 11. Pun
- a play on words, a humorous use of multiple meanings of words or homonymy.
For example: Getting into a taxi, the DAX asked: “What is the TAX?”
And the driver: “We don’t take money from TAX at all. That's it! 12. Oxymoron

- a combination of words with opposite meanings.
For example: ringing silence, hot snow 13. Phraseologisms
are stable combinations of words.
For example: bury talent in the ground. 14. Irony
is a subtle mockery, used in the opposite sense to the direct one.
For example: Did you sing everything? This is the thing: go ahead and dance. Syntactic means of expressiveness (stylistic figures) 1. Inversion
- violation of direct word order For example:
We have been waiting for you for a long time. 2. Ellipsis
is the omission of any member of a sentence, most often a predicate.
For example: We sat in ashes, hail in dust, in swords - sickles and plows. 3. Silence
is an interrupted statement that gives the opportunity to speculate and reflect.
For example: I suffered... I wanted an answer... I didn’t wait... I left... 4. An interrogative sentence
is a syntactic organization of speech that creates a manner of conversation.
For example: How to make a million? 5. A rhetorical question
is a question that makes a statement.
For example: Who can’t catch up with him? 6. Rhetorical appeal
- highlighting important semantic positions.
For example: About the Sea! How I missed you! 7. Syntactic parallelism
- similar, parallel construction of phrases and lines.
For example: Being able to ask for forgiveness is an indicator of strength. To be able to forgive is an indicator of nobility. 8. Gradation
- arrangement of synonyms according to the degree of increase or decrease in the attribute.
For example: Silence covered, fell, absorbed. 9. Antithesis
is a stylistic figure of contrast, comparison, juxtaposition of opposing concepts.
For example: Long hair, short mind. 10. Anaphora
- unity of command.
For example: Take care of each other,
warm each other with kindness. Take care of each other, don't let us offend you. 11. Epiphora

- repetition of final words.
For example: The forest is not the same!
The bush is not the same!

Drozd is not the same! 12. Parcellation

- dividing a sentence into parts.
For example: A man came in. In a leather jacket. Filthy. He smiled.

What are syntactic means of expression

Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the relationship between words within phrases and sentences. Punctuation is adjacent to it - a set of rules on the placement of punctuation marks. Syntax studies such phenomena as intonation and composition of sentences, homogeneous members and addresses, conjunction or non-conjunction of parts of a complex sentence, and so on. All of the above can not only fulfill its main, utilitarian function, but also be a means of expression.

Below in the table “Syntactic means of expressiveness in the Russian language” you can see a list and examples.

Let's take a closer look at some of these means of expression.

Grotesque

The most important artistic techniques in literature include the grotesque. The word "grotesque" means "intricate", "bizarre". This artistic technique represents a violation of the proportions of phenomena, objects, events depicted in the work. It is widely used in the works of, for example, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The Golovlevs,” “The History of a City,” fairy tales). This is an artistic technique based on exaggeration. However, its degree is much greater than that of a hyperbole.

Sarcasm, irony, humor and grotesque are popular artistic techniques in literature. Examples of the first three are the stories of A.P. Chekhov and N.N. Gogol. The work of J. Swift is grotesque (for example, Gulliver's Travels).

What artistic technique does the author (Saltykov-Shchedrin) use to create the image of Judas in the novel “Lord Golovlevs”? Of course it's grotesque. Irony and sarcasm are present in the poems of V. Mayakovsky. The works of Zoshchenko, Shukshin, and Kozma Prutkov are filled with humor. These artistic techniques in literature, examples of which we have just given, as you can see, are very often used by Russian writers.

What types of metaphors are there?

There are several different classifications of metaphors. Here is a division into nominative, cognitive, figurative and conceptual.

Nominative metaphor

This transfer of name from one object/phenomenon to another serves as the formation of new names for objects. For example: the back of a sofa, zipper (clasp), handles (dishes).

Cognitive metaphor

Metaphor due to the transfer of features (predicate words), understanding of abstract concepts from concrete ones. For example: trees melted in the fog (like butter), a prickly response (like a needle).

Figurative metaphor

There is a syntactic shift: a transition from descriptive to predicate. For example: star (cinema), pearl (poetry).

Types of parallelism

In the Russian language, especially in fiction, different types of syntactic parallelism are used:

• binomial,
• polynomial,
• monomial,
• formal,
• negative,
• reverse (chiasmus).

Examples of syntactic parallelism in Russian

The most commonly used is binomial parallelism. Typically, this technique depicts natural phenomena, then describes some life situation.

The reeds rustled over the backwater.

The princess girl is crying by the river.

When using a polynomial option, the actor is compared with several images:

We are two trunks lit by a thunderstorm,

Two flames of the midnight forest,

We are two flying meteors in the night,

A two-stinged bee has the same fate.

In Russian literature, in particular, in folk art, one-term parallelism is also found. At the same time, human characters appear only in the images of plants, animals, birds, however, it is clear that the image of a clear falcon implies a young man, a groom, a lover. The girl, the bride, usually appears in the form of a swan, peahen, or birch, rowan, etc.

In some ways, the formal version of this technique is similar to the monomial one. However, it is not immediately noticeable, since there is no obvious logical connection between the elements. To understand its meaning, you need to imagine the entire work or a certain period.

Syntactic parallelism is sometimes combined with other forms of this expressive means, for example, with phonetic, which is characterized by the use of the same words at the beginning of a line or the same ending of lines. This combination enhances the expressiveness of the text and gives it a special sound:

Your name is a bird in my hand,

Your name is like a piece of ice on the tongue,

Negative parallelism is widely used in oral folk art and works of fiction. This method of expressiveness is found in folk tales, songs, riddles, and authors also use it.

Not the wind blowing from above,

The sheets were touched by the moonlit night

You touched my soul

Speaking about this syntactic means of expression, it is impossible not to mention such a striking expressive device as its reverse form, chiasmus. Its essence is that the sequence of elements changes crosswise or mirror. An example of the so-called purely syntactic chiasmus is the saying: Not the people for power, but power for the people.

In an effort to achieve effect, sharpness, and persuasiveness in their public speeches, chiasmus has been used by orators since ancient times. This expressive means is found in the works of Russian writers and poets of the Golden and Silver Ages, and modern authors cannot do without it.

Epiphora, anaphora, ellipse

Anaphora is the repetition of similar or identical sounds, words, phrases at the beginning of each line, stanza, sentence. A classic example is Yesenin’s poems:

I didn't know that love is an infection

I didn't know that love is a plague...

...Oh, wait. I don't scold her.

Oh, wait. I don't curse her...

Epiphora - repetition of the same elements at the end of phrases, stanzas, lines.

Foolish heart, don't beat!

We are all deceived by happiness,

The beggar only asks for participation...

Foolish heart, don't beat.

Both stylistic figures are more characteristic of poetry than prose. Such techniques are found in all types and genres of literature, including oral folk art, which is very natural, given its specificity.

An ellipse is an omission in a literary text of any linguistic unit (it is easy to restore), while the meaning of the phrase does not suffer.

What yesterday is waist-deep,

Suddenly - to the stars.

(Exaggerated, that is:

Full height.)

M. Tsvetaeva

This gives dynamism, conciseness, and highlights the desired element intonationally in the sentence.

In order to clearly navigate the diversity of linguistic figures and professionally understand the name of a visual and expressive means, you need experience, knowledge of theory and language disciplines.

Russian language: means of expression

A table containing a complete list of means of expression with definitions and examples.

Means of expression in the Russian language can be divided into:

1. Lexical means
2. Syntactic means
3. Phonetic means

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