Contamination and anticipation in speech therapy

Syllabic structure of the word

Note 1
Violations in the syllabic structure of a word are caused by the presence of kinetic apraxia, which is characterized by the fact that the child is not able to smoothly move from one verbal model to another model. In children with motor allalia, the operation of integration is not formed, that is, individual syllables are not combined into an articulatory program. The child is unable to pronounce a syllable in isolation.

The syllable structure is examined first, since on its basis the speech therapist has the opportunity to assume the degree of speech underdevelopment in the child. If elision predominates in speech, this is the first level of speech underdevelopment, that is, there are no phrases. If perseveration, iteration, anticipation and contamination take place, this is the second level of speech underdevelopment, that is, the child begins to master phrasal speech. The production of syllables is characteristic of the third level; the child has developed phrasal speech.

The use of anticipation in teaching literacy in speech therapy classes

The use of anticipation in teaching literacy in speech therapy classes

The modern education system allows the child to become an active participant in the learning process. The success of learning in all subjects depends on the student’s general academic skills. One of the basic general educational skills is reading

, because The success of a child’s education in almost all subjects of the school curriculum depends on it.

A student who reads little and poorly will, as they say, “choke” in the flow of information. Therefore, in elementary school, teachers develop an optimal reading speed and a craving for reading fiction, educational, and educational literature. Often teachers use anticipation techniques.

Translated from Latin, “anticipation” (anticipatio) means predestination, anticipation, prediction of events; a preconceived idea about something. The term “anticipation” was introduced into psychology in 1880 by the German scientist Wilhelm Wundt. He understood by this term the ability of a person to imagine the possible result of an action before it is carried out.

The ability to anticipate, including anticipation when reading, can be trained. For a well-trained reader, the reading process resembles the game “Guess the melody.” From a few initial letters he guesses the entire word, and from a few initial words - the entire phrase, and from several phrases - the meaning of the entire paragraph or section.

With the help of anticipation (guess, mental anticipation), the reader runs ahead in thought. He not only understands what the author is talking about in the text being read at the moment, but also assumes, guesses, according to the logic of the development of the author’s thoughts, what he should say next. The reader turns into a kind of co-author. He himself “continues” the author’s text, he himself mentally “writes” the continuation. This position causes high intellectual activity, does not allow one to lose the thread of presentation, the author’s train of thought, helps to notice all deviations, all unexpected moves and shades, and involuntarily sets one in a critical mood in all cases of discrepancies between the guess and the actual train of thought of the author.

The question arises: is it possible to use this method of work in kindergarten in speech therapy classes when teaching literacy? After all, preschoolers do not yet have reading skills, they do not have sufficient “speech experience”! There is an opinion that it is necessary to develop anticipation when reading text when the child is already reading at a speed of 15-20 words per minute. But the anticipation of letters

can be developed already at the first, initial stage of literacy learning.

However, many speech therapists use this method when learning letters. Here are some working methods:

Restore the letter from individual elements (games: “Bug-Eater”, “Add the letter”, “Correct the letter”, “Choose the right letter”, etc.)

Complete the letters so that they are all different

Isographs are a real find for the development of visual perception, attention, memory, logical thinking, and creativity of preschoolers.

Choose a given letter from a number of letters, syllables, words
"Noisy" letters
"Transforming a letter" from one to another
Coming up with an “image of a letter” (draw it, show it with your fingers, using counting sticks, threads, etc.)
Composing words from given letters and syllables
Cut pictures (letters)

Completing letters by adding missing elements to them

Finding letters in combined letters

Thus, in kindergarten, during literacy classes, it is possible to use techniques to develop anticipation for the material of letters, which will help children in their further education at school.

MB preschool educational institution “Kindergarten No. 91”, Novokuznetsk

Speech therapist teacher: Kozyreva O.V.

Dictionary of speech therapy terms material on speech therapy on the topic

Dictionary of speech therapy terms

Automation (of sound) is the stage of correcting incorrect sound pronunciation, which follows after setting a new sound; aimed at developing the correct pronunciation of sounds in coherent speech; consists in the gradual, consistent introduction of a given sound into syllables, words, sentences and into independent speech.

Agnosia is a violation of various types of perception that occurs with certain brain lesions. There are visual, tactile, and auditory agnosias.

Agrammatism is a violation of the understanding and use of grammatical means of a language.

Adaptation is the adaptation of an organism to living conditions.

Acalculia is a violation of counting and counting operations as a result of damage to various areas of the cerebral cortex.

Alalia is the absence or underdevelopment of speech in children with normal hearing and primarily intact intelligence.

Alexia is the impossibility of the reading process.

Amorphous words are grammatically unchangeable root words, “abnormal words” of child speech - words-fragments (in which only parts of the word are preserved), words-onomatopoeia (words-syllables that the child uses to designate objects, actions, situations), contour words ( in which stress and number of syllables are correctly reproduced).

Amnesia is a memory disorder in which it is impossible to reproduce ideas and concepts formed in the past.

Anamnesis is a set of information (about a person’s living conditions, events preceding the disease, etc.) obtained during the examination from the person being examined and (or) persons who know him; used to establish a diagnosis, prognosis of the disease and select corrective measures.

Ankyloglossia is a shortened hyoid ligament.

Anticipation is the ability to foresee the manifestation of the results of an action, “anticipatory reflection”, for example, premature recording of sounds included in the final motor acts.

Apraxia is a violation of voluntary purposeful movements and actions that are not a consequence of paralysis and cuts, but related to disorders of the highest level of organization of motor acts.

Articulation is the activity of the speech organs associated with the pronunciation of speech sounds and their various components that make up syllables and words.

The articulatory apparatus is a set of organs that ensure the formation of speech sounds (articulation), including the vocal apparatus, muscles of the pharynx, larynx, tongue, soft palate, lips, cheeks and lower jaw, teeth, etc.

Ataxia – disorder/lack of coordination of movements.

Atrophy is pathological structural changes in tissues associated with inhibition of metabolism (caused by a disorder of their nutrition).

Asthenia – weakness.

Asphyxia – suffocation of the fetus and newborn – cessation of breathing with continued cardiac activity due to a decrease or loss of excitability of the respiratory center.

An audiogram is a graphic representation of hearing test data using a device (audiometer).

Aphasia is a complete or partial loss of speech caused by local lesions of the brain.

Main forms of aphasia:

acoustic-gnostic (sensory) – violation of phonemic perception;
acoustic-mnestic – impairment of auditory-verbal memory;
semantic – impaired understanding of logical and grammatical structures;
afferent motor – kinesthetic and articulatory apraxia;
efferent motor – violation of the kinetic basis of series of speech movements;
dynamic – violation of the sequential organization of utterances, planning of utterances.

Afferent kinesthetic praxis is the ability to reproduce isolated speech sounds, their articulatory patterns (postures), which are often also called speech kinesthesia or articulomes.

Aphonia – lack of sonority of the voice while maintaining whispered speech; The immediate cause of aphonia is the failure of the vocal folds to close, resulting in air leakage during phonation. Aphonia occurs as a result of organic or functional disorders in the larynx, with a disorder of the nervous regulation of speech activity.

Battarism is a speech disorder in which words are pronounced at an excessively fast pace, not clearly, and are not spoken correctly.

Bradylalia is a pathologically slow rate of speech.

Broca's Center is a region of the cerebral cortex located in the posterior third of the inferior frontal gyrus of the left hemisphere (in right-handed people), providing motor organization of speech (responsible for expressive speech).

An utterance is a unit of communication that has semantic integrity.

Verbal - verbal.

Visual communication - eye contact.

Wernicke Center is an area of the cerebral cortex in the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere, providing speech understanding (responsible for impressive speech).

Gammacism is a lack of pronunciation of the sounds [G], [G].

Hemiplegia is paralysis of the muscles of one half of the body.

Hyperkinesis – automatic violent movements due to involuntary muscle contractions.

Hypoxia is oxygen starvation of the body. Hypoxia in newborns is a fetal pathology that develops during pregnancy (chronic) or childbirth (acute) due to oxygen deficiency. Lack of oxygen supply to the fetus at the beginning of pregnancy can cause delays or disturbances in fetal development, and in later stages it affects the baby’s nervous system, which can significantly affect speech development.

The following factors may put you at risk for developing hypoxia:

the presence of anemia, STDs, as well as serious diseases of the respiratory or cardiovascular system in the expectant mother;
disturbances in the blood supply to the fetus and in labor, gestosis, post-term pregnancy;
pathologies of the fetus and Rh conflict between mother and baby;
smoking and drinking alcohol by a pregnant woman.

Also, the green color of amniotic fluid indicates oxygen deficiency.

If the doctor suspects hypoxia, he may decide whether a cesarean section is necessary. A newborn with a severe degree of oxygen deprivation is resuscitated, and with a mild degree receives oxygen and medications.

Voice - sounds that arise as a result of vibration of the vocal cords when speaking, singing, laughing, etc.

-voice pitch is a physiological property of the speech voice, controlled by the tension of the vocal cords and the frequency of their vibrations. They are distinguished: high speech voice - developed head sound; low - developed chest sound; medium - mixed sound.

-voice range—the volume of sound, that is, the interval between the highest and lowest sounds of the voice. A voice with a large range of sound has flexibility, mobility, and play of sound.

- voice flight - the duration of the sound of individual phrases, words and sounds. When the sound is rich in intonation, the words are pronounced emotionally, clearly, clearly, and the speaker’s speech reaches the far corners of the audience.

-voice timbre - individual sound coloring, voice quality, characteristic of each person.

- developed voice - the voice is the most fully and comprehensively developed, with great range, strength, sonority, and flexibility.

Dysarthria is a violation of the pronunciation aspect of speech caused by insufficient innervation of the speech apparatus.

Dyslalia is a violation of sound pronunciation with normal hearing and intact innervation of the speech apparatus.

Dyslexia is a partial specific disorder of the reading process, caused by the immaturity (impairment) of higher mental functions and manifested in repeated persistent errors.

Dysgraphia is a partial specific disorder of the writing process, caused by the immaturity (impairment) of higher mental functions and manifested in repeated errors of a persistent nature.

Dysphonia - (dis-phone-voice disorder; Greek) voice disorder.

Breathing is conventionally divided into: clavicular, thoracic and abdominal.

- chest - breathing, in which the ribs, rising, increase the volume of the chest in its middle part. At the same time, the voice quickly gets tired.

-clavicular - short, shallow breathing.

-abdominal - diaphragmatic breathing: the diaphragm contracts and increases the volume of the chest.

Speech development delay (SSD) is a lag in speech development from the age norm of speech development at the age of up to 3 years. From 3 years of age and older, the immaturity of all components of speech is classified as GSD (general speech underdevelopment).

Mental retardation is a violation of the normal pace of mental development, as a result of which a child who has reached school age continues to remain in the circle of preschool interests.

Stuttering is a violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, caused by the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus.

Onomatopoeia is the conditional reproduction of natural sounds and sounds that accompany certain processes (laughter, whistling, noise, etc.), as well as animal cries.

Defense mechanisms are a set of unconscious techniques with which a person protects himself from mental trauma.

AND

Impressive speech – perception, understanding of speech.

Innervation is the provision of organs and tissues with nerves and, therefore, communication with the central nervous system.

Stroke is an acute cerebrovascular accident (ACVA) caused by a pathological process with the development of persistent symptoms of damage to the central nervous system. Hemorrhagic stroke is caused by hemorrhage in the brain or its membranes, ischemic stroke is caused by the cessation or significant reduction of blood supply to a part of the brain, thrombotic stroke is caused by blockage of a cerebral vessel with a thrombus, embolic stroke is caused by blockage of a cerebral vessel by an embolus.

Intonation - (intono-pronounce loudly; Latin) a set of sound elements of speech (strength, height, timbre, duration of sound). Intonation creates an additional shade of meaning, subtext of speech, and helps to better understand the statement. If the speech is rich in intonations, it is especially clear and beautiful.

- intonation includes: rhythm, tempo, timbre and melody of speech. Melodics - the modulation of the voice for a question, exclamation or statement. Rhythm is a uniform alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables (different in voice strength and duration). Tempo is the speed of speech delivery. (When accelerated, intelligibility decreases; when slowed down, expressiveness decreases). Timbre is the emotional coloring of a phrase, giving speech different shades: surprise, joy, sadness, etc.

Communication - (communico-communicating; Latin) contacts, communication, exchange of information between people.

Pronunciation correction - correction of pronunciation deficiencies.

Kappacism is a lack of pronunciation of the sounds [К], [Кь].

Kinesthetic sensations are sensations of position and movement of organs.

Compensation is a complex, multidimensional process of restructuring mental functions in the event of disruption or loss of any body functions.

Contamination is the erroneous reproduction of words, which consists of combining syllables belonging to different words into one word.

Speech culture is a multi-valued concept that includes: correctness of speech, that is, mastery of the norms of oral and written literary language (rules of pronunciation, stress, word usage, vocabulary, grammar and stylistics), and speech skill, that is, the ability to choose the most accurate from existing options semantically, stylistically and situationally appropriate, expressive, etc. Speech culture presupposes a high general human culture.

Lambdacism is the incorrect pronunciation of the sounds [L], [L].

Lexicon - vocabulary.

A logical pause is a pause that divides the speaker’s speech into speech beats in accordance with semantic and grammatical connections between words, characterized by a change in pitch and voice.

Logical stress - highlighting the most important word among other words to give the sentence an exact meaning. Logical stress falls on the word that has an essential meaning, according to the speaker’s intention.

Logicality of speech is the communicative quality of speech. To achieve logical speech, one should strive for semantic consistency of the statement.

Speech therapy is the science of speech disorders, methods of their prevention, identification and elimination by means of special training and education.

Logophobia - (logos-teaching, phobos-fear; Greek) fear of uttering words, speech.

Speech therapy massage is one of the speech therapy techniques that helps normalize the pronunciation aspect of speech and the emotional state of people suffering from speech disorders. Speech therapy massage is part of a comprehensive medical and pedagogical system of rehabilitation for children, adolescents and adults suffering from speech disorders.

Logorrhea is an uncontrolled, incoherent flow of speech, often representing an empty collection of individual words, devoid of logical connection. Observed in sensory aphasia.

Logorhythmics is a system of motor exercises in which various movements are combined with the pronunciation of special speech material. Logorhythmics is a form of active therapy, overcoming speech and related disorders through the development and correction of non-speech and speech mental functions.

Localization of functions - according to the theory of systemic dynamic localization of higher mental functions, the brain is considered as a substrate consisting of departments differentiated by their functions, working as a single whole. Local – local, limited to a certain area, area.

Macroglossia – pathological enlargement of the tongue; observed with abnormal development and in the presence of a chronic pathological process in the language. With M., significant pronunciation disturbances are observed.

Microglossia is a developmental anomaly, small size of the tongue.

Voice modulation is a change in the pitch of the voice; with hearing loss, the vocal tract is disrupted, which makes speech monotonous.

Voice mutation is a change in voice that occurs as a result of age-related changes in the vocal apparatus (13-15 years).

Mutism is the cessation of verbal communication with others due to mental trauma.

Speech melody - raising and lowering the tone of the voice.

Facial expressions are a set of facial muscle movements and eye movements of a person, expressing his state or his attitude towards something.

Voice modulation - changing the voice in pitch, strength, timbre and duration.

Motor skills are a set of motor reactions.

Mnemonics are techniques that ensure memorization using artificial associations.

Voice disorder is the absence or disorder of phonation due to pathological changes in the voice-forming apparatus.

Speech disorders are deviations in the speaker’s speech from the language norm accepted in a given language environment, manifested in partial (partial) disorders (sound pronunciation, voice, tempo and rhythm, etc.) and caused by disorders of the normal functioning of the psychophysiological mechanisms of speech activity.

Neuropsychology is the science of the brain organization of higher mental functions of a person. N. studies the psychological structure, brain organization of non-speech HMF and speech function. N. studies disorders of speech and other HMF depending on the nature of brain damage (local, diffuse, interzonal connections), as well as the diagnosis of these disorders and methods of correctional and rehabilitation work.

A skill is an automatically performed action that does not require conscious control or special volitional efforts to perform it.

Nonverbal means of communication - gestures, facial expressions, pantomime, expressive movements.

Speech underdevelopment - see General speech underdevelopment.

ABOUT

General speech underdevelopment (GSD) is a variety of complex speech disorders in which children have impaired formation of all components of the speech system related to its sound and semantic side, with normal hearing and intelligence.

Reflected speech is speech repeated after someone.

Feedback is the process of obtaining information about the state of a communication partner in order to improve communication and achieve the desired result.

Communication is a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people.

Organs of articulation - lips, tongue, lower jaw, pharynx. Accurate articulation produces clear, clear speech.

Finger games are a generally accepted name for activities to develop fine motor skills in children. Finger games develop fine motor skills, and its development stimulates the development of certain areas of the brain, in particular speech centers.

Paraphasia is a violation of speech utterances, manifested in omissions, erroneous replacement or rearrangement of sounds and syllables in words (literal paraphasia, for example, mokolo instead of milk, cheekbone instead of chair) or in the replacement of necessary words with others that are not related to the meaning of the utterance (verbal paraphasia) in oral and written speech.

Pathogenesis is the mechanism of development of a specific disease, pathological process or condition.

Perseverations are cyclical repetition or persistent reproduction, often contrary to the conscious intention of any actions, thoughts or experiences.

Prenatal period – pertaining to the period before birth.

Pantomime is a set of expressive body movements that accompany speech and emotions.

Pause is a stop during speech.

Vocal mobility is the ability of the voice to easily change its pitch and strength. The lack of mobility in the voice makes it monotonous.

Speech mobility is the ability to control the speed of the rhythmic movement of speech, its tempo, freely moving from slow to fast and vice versa. This ability is developed during training.

Paralinguistics - vocal capabilities of the voice.

Prosody is the melodic-intonation side of speech.

Speech decay is the loss of existing speech and communication skills due to local brain damage.

Reflex - in physiology - a natural response of the body to a stimulus mediated by the nervous system.

Disinhibition is the cessation of the state of internal inhibition in the cerebral cortex under the influence of extraneous stimuli.

Disinhibition of speech in children – activation of speech development in children with delayed speech development.

Disinhibition of speech in adults – restoration of speech function in speechless patients.

Speech hearing is a person’s ability to perceive and reproduce all phonological means of language when perceiving speech. Components of speech hearing:

- pitch hearing - the ability to hear and perceive the melody of speech;

-rhythmic hearing - the ability to sense and reproduce its internal tempo in speech;

- tonal hearing - the ability to hear and reproduce timbre changes in the voice depending on changes in feelings and relationships;

- physical hearing - the ability to perceive sounding speech in different ranges of volume and height;

- phonemic hearing - the ability to distinguish and reproduce speech sounds.

Speech beat - (syntagma) a word or group of words within a sentence that are united by meaning.

Speech is a system of sound signals, written signs and symbols used by humans to transmit and store information.

-external - speech for others, heard and understood by people around; consists of written and oral speech;

-internal - speech for oneself, devoid of sound design, mental speech.

The rhythm of speech is the sequential alternation of speech elements over the same amount of time.

Rhetoric is the theory and skill of harmonious speech.

Rhinolalia is a violation of voice timbre and sound pronunciation, resulting from excessive or insufficient resonance in the nasal cavity during speech. Such a violation of resonance occurs from the incorrect direction of the voice-exhalatory stream due to either organic defects of the nasopharynx, nasal cavity, soft and hard palate, or disorders of the function of the soft palate. There are open, closed and mixed rhinolalia.

Rhinophony is a change in only the timbre of the voice (nasal tone) with normal sound pronunciation.

Rotacism is a disorder in the pronunciation of the sounds [Р], [Рь].

Sensory – sensitive, feeling, relating to sensations.

WITH

Self-regulation is the process of a person managing his psychological and physiological states and actions.

The strength of the voice depends on the amplitude of vibrations of the vocal cords, which is determined by the amount of air pressure, that is, the pressure of exhaled air during voice formation.

Syntagmatic stress is the main word of speech tact.

Sigmatism is a disorder in the pronunciation of whistling ([С], [Сь], [З], [Зь], [Ц]) and hissing ([Ш], [Х], [Ч], [Ш]) sounds.

A syndrome is a natural combination of signs (symptoms) that have a common pathogenesis and characterize a specific disease state.

Simultaneous – simultaneous.

Somatic is a term used to designate various kinds of phenomena in the body associated with the body, as opposed to the psyche.

Conjugate speech is the joint simultaneous repetition by two or more persons of words or phrases spoken by someone.

Cramps are involuntary muscle contractions that occur during epilepsy, brain injuries, spasmophilia and other diseases. Convulsions are characteristic of a state of excitation of subcortical formations and can be caused reflexively.

Clonic seizures are characterized by rapid alternations between muscle contraction and relaxation. Tonic cramps are characterized by prolonged muscle contraction, which causes a prolonged forced tense position.

Successive – sequential.

Tahilalia is a speech disorder, expressed in excessive speed of its tempo (20-30 sounds per second), related in nature to battarism. In contrast to the latter, tachylalia is a deviation from normal speech only in relation to its tempo, with full preservation of phonetic design, as well as vocabulary and grammatical structure.

Tremor – rhythmic oscillatory movements of the limbs, head, tongue, etc. with damage to the nervous system.

Rate of speech - speed of speech, can be measured by the number of words per unit of time.

Communication techniques are ways of pre-setting a person to communicate with people, his behavior in the communication process.

Speech technique is a set of skills and abilities used for optimal speech sound.

Stress is distinguished: 1) grammatical (pronunciation with the greatest force of a syllable in a word); 2) phrasal (transmitted by raising or lowering the entire contour of the sentence); 3) syntagmatic (the main word of the syntagma is pronounced with greater intensity).

The frenulum is the sublingual ligament. With a short frenulum, the pronunciation of the sounds [R, L, Sh, Zh, Ch, Shch] is impaired. There is no need for surgical intervention, as there are special exercises for stretching the frenulum.

Phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment is a violation of the process of formation of the pronunciation system of the native language in children with various speech disorders due to defects in the perception and pronunciation of phonemes.

Phoneme is the sound of speech. There are 42 phonemes in the Russian language.

Phonemic analysis and synthesis are mental actions to analyze or synthesize the sound structure of a word.

Phonemic hearing is a subtle, systematized hearing that has the ability to carry out operations of discrimination and recognition of phonemes that make up the sound shell of a word.

Phoniatrics is a branch of medicine that studies dental problems and pathologies of the vocal cords and larynx, leading to voice disorders (dysphonia), methods of treatment and prevention of voice disorders, as well as methods of correcting a normal voice in the desired direction. Voice disturbances can also occur as a result of certain psychological disorders. The solution to some problems in phoniatrics is closely related to the problems of speech therapy.

A phoniatrist is a doctor who specializes in problems of the vocal cords and deals with their treatment, as well as the prevention of diseases.

Phonation - voice formation.

Hittism is a lack of pronunciation of the sound [X].

Cerebral – cerebral, belonging to the brain.

Purity of speech - such speech is called pure in which there are no defective sounds; elements alien to the literary language: jargon, dialectisms, vulgarisms, parasitic words.

Expressive speech is active oral and written expression.

Extirpation (of the larynx) – removal.

An embolus is a substrate circulating in the blood that is not found under normal conditions and can cause blockage of a blood vessel.

Speech embolus is one of the most common words, part of a word or short phrase before the disease, repeated many times by the patient when trying to speak. It is one of the speech symptoms of motor aphasia.

Etiology is the cause of a disease or pathological condition.

Expression - (expressio-expressiveness; Latin) the power of manifestation of feelings, experiences.

Empathy is sympathy for a person.

Efferent kinetic praxis is the ability to produce a series of speech sounds. Efferent articulatory praxis is fundamentally different from afferent one in that it requires the ability to switch from one articulatory posture to another. These switches are complex in the way they are executed. They involve mastering inserted fragments of articulatory actions - coarticulations, which are “connections” between individual articulatory poses. Without coarticulation, a word cannot be pronounced, even if every sound included in it is available for reproduction.

Echolalia is the involuntary repetition of heard sounds, words or phrases.

Language is the most important means of communication, a tool for thinking and influencing people on each other.

About some reasons for contaminated slips of speech in children

Lavrova Natalia Alexandrovna,

Candidate of Philological Sciences, senior lecturer at Moscow Pedagogical State University.

It is generally accepted that the main reasons for children's slips of speech are the underdevelopment of the articulatory system and imperfect phonemic hearing. In the generation of children's contaminations and other rearrangements, mnemonic processes also play a certain role: the child better and more easily remembers not further distant sounds (the beginning - the moment of production of the speech signal), which were pronounced first by the speaker, but nearby sounds (the moment of the end of the speech signal), which the speaker pronounces last, so the child begins to reproduce the acoustic sequence he hears from nearby sounds [P.T. Tyurin, 2006]. Another reason is the inability to analyze spatial relationships, in particular, the unsettled dominance of the right hand over the left. According to data provided by P.T. Tyurin (2006), 54% of children aged from one and a half to 3 years are functionally equal-armed, or ambidextrous, perhaps this explains the tendency to combine words that are different in semantics, but consonant or for some reason adjacent in the child’s mind.

Another reason for the emergence of contaminants in children's speech is the binary model of interaction of semantic elements, when one element anticipates another - due to synonymy, antonymity or some other formal or semantic similarity. In any case, we have to admit that contaminated slips before 3 years of age are, to a large extent, accidental and quickly disappear from the child’s speech if they do not receive positive reinforcement from others. At the same time, if a child begins to speak early (at 12-18 months), a conscious distortion of the phonetic appearance of a word or the creation of a contaminant word on the basis of previously acquired words through compression is possible. A certain role in the occurrence of slips is also played by the lack of an established meaning and meaning for the child of the spoken word: the sound shell of the word is more attractive on the way to mastering the native language, so the child strives to experiment with the word, checking the reaction of others, choosing one or another word in depending on the external signal that he receives from adults - “accepted-unaccepted”, “approved-disapproved”, “good-bad”. There are cases when parents support the child’s language creativity, accompanying it with positive reinforcement [Slobin D., Green J., 1976].

Speech errors, the essence of which is a violation of accepted language norms, are inevitable in the process of language acquisition. The very fact of their presence can be considered as evidence that each individual independently builds his own language system in his own consciousness, focusing on speech behavior from the outside. Let us give some examples of contaminated words in the speech of Russian-speaking children (from 2 to 5 years old): toad-eater (toad + cannibal), corkscrew (corkscrew + spur) horses, concrete garden (concrete + botanical), depressing ring (engagement + dejected), Greek fruits ( Greek + grapefruits), autograph (autograph + photograph), caries (caries + brown eyes). Since the time of L.V. Shcherby speech innovations are considered as negative linguistic material, which should be understood as various deviations from the norm, and which contribute to a better understanding of how the language system functions. According to S.N. Tseitlin, when analyzing the essence of deviations from the norm, one can learn a lot about the language system, since the different nature of linguistic units and categories is revealed, as well as the inferiority of some paradigms [S.N. Tseitlin, 2003].

In teaching methods, linguistics and psycholinguistics, it is customary to distinguish between errors, which are persistent in nature and are caused by ignorance of some aspect of the language system, and slips of the tongue, which are not systematic and are associated with a temporary weakening of attention and control over speech in the process of speech activity. Differentiation of language errors and accidental slips is possible if the volume of speech production of each individual is sufficiently extensive, subject to the given communication conditions. An error is a deviation from the norm that is regularly repeated in similar situations and does not depend on the physical or mental state of a person. This article aims to analyze clauses in children's speech from the point of view of structure, semantics and motivation.

In children's speech, there is a tendency towards a symmetrical and analogous organization of linguistic material, which leads to the formation of ideal inflectional and word-formative paradigms. Let's give examples of children's slips from the English language and try to understand the reason for their appearance (all examples are taken from A. Zamudio “The American Sandbox Dictionary of Children's Mispronounced English”, 2009). Note also that almost all definitions, unlike created words, are conventional, thus the new word represents a known, not new concept, which also indicates that this is not word creation in the true sense of the word, but a reservation: “ earsdrop ” - to listen in on a conversation that was intended to be private: “ Daddy !
Jimmy was ears dropping on us again ! " .
In this case, the replacement of the first component of the usual idiomatic compound word “eavesdrop” is due to an attempt to comprehend its components as meaningful, which is partly facilitated by the consonance of the words “eaves” and “ears”.
From a word-formation point of view, it would be incorrect to consider the resulting word as complex, since it is formed not by combining the elements “ears” and “drop,” but by superimposing a single-base word on a two-base one. The clause “ f oodgerator ” ( food + refrigerator ) is also formed by analogy and in an attempt to find a semantically significant internal form of the word “refrigerator”: a household appliance in which perishable foods are kept cool by means of mechanical cooling, the outside of which has become the most common location for children's latest artistic creations. “ Mom, I put the milk back in the foodgerator like you told me to.”
(Colin, age 3, Vermilion, OHUSA).
The contaminant “ kangaroof ” (kangaroo + roof) was created according to the principle of folk etymology : a fur covered, undomesticated marsupial native to the continent of Australia with short forelimbs, powerful hind limbs that they leap with, a small head and a large tail. “ Dad, can we get a kangaroof for my birthday?”
(A. Hernandez, age 2, Mexico).
It is more false to interpret the contaminant “menicorn” -
a legendary mythical animal with the body of a horse characterized by a single spiraled horn protruding from its forehead.
“ I'm going to ride a menicorn someday!”
The first component here is the word “men” (people, men). Apparently, associative connections come into force here: if at this stage the child is already familiar with another mythological animal - a centaur - half-man, half-horse, he may think that a unicorn is also a “half-horse”, akin to a centaur.

The contaminant “ flusterated ” represents what we call hypersemantization - the creation of a compressed word, the components of which are synonyms, that is, they express approximately the same concept. One of the meanings of the word “fluster” is “excitement,” “trepidation,” “anxiety.” The same semes are represented in the word “frustrated” (frustration): a feeling of disappointment or aggravation by a situation or circumstance. “ That makes me very flustered

!”
(Justin, age 5, Saint JohnNB, Canada). The contaminant “lumpster” is formed by a contraction of the words “lump” and “lobster” and is defined as “a crustacean with big claws that big people eat” (Thornton Schuelke, Cape Coral / Fort Myers, FL USA): A crustacean (shellfish) with big claws that big people like to eat. “ Mom and Dad went out to eat some lumpster ! "
.
In this case, the motivation of the word can be both esoteric and exoteric: the definition of the word states that both crayfish claws and the people who eat them can be large (lump). The emergence of the contaminant “ ellegator ” (elevator + alligator — a vertically moving cabin, cage or platform in a structure or building that moves people or freight from one level to another: “ Mommy ! Let 's ride the ellegator ! ”
(Gabi, age 3 , MO USA))
is due to reasons of a different nature. There is nothing in common in the semantics of the prototype words; most likely, the child first became acquainted with the word “ alligator ” - while adults were reading books, in a picture, etc. “ Elevator ” sounded later and was a new, unusual word;
in addition, there may be a conscious combination of words for the purpose of a pun, a language game, which is found in the speech of children starting from the age of two or three. In some cases, it becomes difficult to determine the type of childish slip; in particular, it is difficult to distinguish between metathesis - rearrangement of letters and/or syllables in a word and contamination, since the resulting rearrangement leads to the fact that another word is “read” in the word, as, for example, in English “ agillator ”: a large reptile with a long mouth, sharp teeth and powerful jaws. Native to the wetland areas of the southwest United States and China. “ Look Mom, that man's boots look like an agillator

!“
(Jada, age 3, Alton, ILUSA). Here it is possible to both rearrange the letters “l” and “g”, and contract the words “agile” (“agility”) and “alligator”. The English “agile” means “dexterous”, “agile”, “alive”, “mobile” - semes, in principle, compatible with the concept of “crocodile”. Contaminant “effelent” (a large, grayish-brown, five-toed animal with a long, hose-like nose and very large ears. “ I saw an effelent at the zoo today !”
(Madison, age 3, St. Charles, MO; Pam, age 4, Crestview, FL USA)) can also be analyzed from different perspectives - as a metathesis clause and as a contaminant. In the second case, one of the constituent elements may be the word “effect”, since the elephant is large and, as a rule, produces a significant effect, especially on children.

So, contaminated clauses in children's speech can be caused by:

1. The child’s natural desire to comprehend a new, unfamiliar and, perhaps, “meaningless” word for him or its structural elements as significant, endowed with meaning.

2. A tendency towards a symmetrical and analogous organization of linguistic material, in which all words must have a transparent internal form and be semantically or structurally motivated.

3. Experimenting with the form of a word and, as a result, an attempt at punning word formation, especially if this finds positive reinforcement from adults.

4. Insufficient development of the articulatory apparatus and imperfection of the child’s phonemic hearing. In this case, the formed contaminant is a “random” result of metathesis - rearrangement of letters and/or syllables in a word.

Literature

1. Tyurin P.T. Metathesis in children's speech // Scientific and methodological journal “Bulletin of Practical Psychology of Education” No. 4 (9), 2006 [electronic resource]. www.psy.lv/templates/userfiles/documents/zinatne.doc.

2. Tseytlin S.N. Speech errors in mastering Russian as a native and foreign language: experience of comparative analysis // X Congress MAPRYAL “Russian word in world culture”. Methods of teaching the Russian language: traditions and prospects. T. 2. – St. Petersburg, 2003. – P. 426 – 432.

3. Zamudio, Alvin. The American Sandbox Dictionary of Children's Mispronounced English, 2009 [electronic resource]. https://www.americansandbox.com.

Received by the editor on August 31, 2009.